Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate, ruled from the early 13th century to the mid-16th century. It was a period of Islamic rule in India, influenced by Turkish and Afghan incursions. This era saw the rise of influential dynasties, including the Slave dynasty, which marked the beginning of Muslim rule in India. The era was marked by cultural amalgamation, architectural marvels, and complex political dynamics shaping Indian history. The Delhi Sultanate ruled from A.D. 1206 to 1526 and comprised of five dynasties: Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids, and Lodis. The first three dynasties were Turkish, while the Sayyids were Arabs and the Lodis were Afghans.

The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic Empire that ruled over South Asia, primarily the Indian peninsula, from 1206 to 1526. The founding of the Delhi Sultanate was a result of Turkish migration, a practice during the Middle Ages where Central-Asian ethnic Turks expanded throughout Eurasia and assimilated into powerful nations' cultures and political systems. The first ruler of Delhi was a Mamluk, or "slave warrior." The Ghaznavid Dynasty of Islamic Turks began raiding Northern India in the tenth century, but they never settled there. A Sultan from the Persian Ghurid Dynasty named Muhammad of Ghor attempted to establish a permanent presence in Northern India, under him Qutb al-Din Aibak, a Mamluk leader, took control of Northern India and officially proclaimed himself the first sultan of Delhi. His rule ended in 1210, and a succession dispute followed.

During the 13th through the 16th centuries, the Indian subcontinent was home to the Delhi Sultanate, a Muslim kingdom. Large portions of northern India, including what is now Pakistan and Bangladesh, were ruled by Muslim dynasties from Afghanistan and Turkey, who founded it. Given that it initiated Muslim rule in India and had a long-lasting effect on its politics, culture, and society, the Delhi Sultanate was an important era in the nation's history.

1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak(1206-1210):
   • The slave dynasty was established by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
   • He was one of Muhammad Ghori's Turkish slaves who played an important role for the expansion of the Turkish after the battle of Tarain.
   • The Slave dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate were established by him after he defeated Yaldauz and broke all ties with Ghazni.
   • He established Lahore as his capital.
   • Because of his generosity, he was also known as Lakh Bash, or the Giver of Lakhs. On the other hand, he was also accountable for the desecration and ruin of numerous Hindu temples.
   • In honor of the well-known Sufi saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar, he also began the construction of the Qutub Minar. It was thereafter finished by Iltumish.
   • Around 1210 CE, Aibak passed away unexpectedly while participating in a game of horse polo called Chaugan.
2. Iltutmish (1210-1236):
   • Iltutmish, a member of the Ilbari tribe, dethroned Aram Shah in 1211 CE and became Sultan Shamsuddin.
   • During this period, Genghis Khan, the Mongol emperor, attempted an invasion of India. He declined to assist Jalal-al-Din, the ruler of Afghanistan, in defending his empire against an invasion by the Mongols.
   • Iltutmish's diplomatic policy helped save his empire from the Mongols' wrath.
   • He brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate, suppressed Rajput revolts, and established control over Bayana, Mandor, Jalore, and Gwalior.
   • He led an unsuccessful expedition against the Chalukyas of Gujarat.
   • Iltutmish, a prominent statesman, became the legal sovereign ruler of India in 1229 CE after receiving ‘mansur' from the Abbasid Caliph.
   • He built the Qutub Minar in Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India, and introduced the Arabic coinage, the silver tanka, which became the basis of the modern rupee.
   • He organized the ruling elite, Turkan-i-Chahalgani, and patronized scholars, including Sufi saints like Minhaj-us-Siraj, Taj-ud-din, Muhammad Junaidi, Fakhrul-Mulk-Isami, and Malik Qutub-ud-din Hasan.
   • Iltutmish nominated his daughter as his successor.
3. Razia Sultana (1236-40):
   • Raziya Sultan was the first female ruler of medieval India's Sultanate period.
   • Raziya discarded female attire and led the army.
   • Bahram, another son of Iltutmish, was crowned emperor by the Turkish nobility Chahalgani. Bahram Shah defeated her and took over.
4. Nasiruddin (1246-66):
   • He was a high rank noble under Raziya's reign. He served as Nasiruddin Mahmud's (1246–1265) naib, or deputy, to the younger Iltutmish son.
   • Balban was titled Ulugh Khan (Premier Khan) by one of the puppet monarchs, Nasiruddin Mahmud.
5. Ghiyasuddin Balban(1266-86):
   • A Turkish chief named Ghiasuddin Balban governed through puppet leaders for several decades following Razia's death.
   • Finally, in 1266 CE, he took control for himself.
   • He declared the Sultan to be God (Zil-i-Ilahi), requiring the practice of Sizda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the sultan's feet).
   • Balban was committed to destroying "Chahalgani's" dominance.
   • He rebuilt the army and created the independent military department, Diwan-e-arz.
   • The Mongols made a comeback in the northwest, and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud to fight them. However, the prince's death in the conflict dealt Balban a moral blow.
   • Around 1287 CE, Balban passed away. He was a key figure in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. He was unable to completely prevent the Mongol invasion from reaching India, though.

1. Jalal-ud-din Khalji (c. 1290 – 1296 CE)
   • The Khilji Dynasty was founded by Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
   • He had been a warden of marches in the northwest and had fought against the Mongols during Balban's reign.
   • The Khaljis were of mixed Turkish-Afghan descent and aimed to mitigate the harsh aspects of Balban's rule.
   • He adopted a policy of tolerance and avoided harsh punishments.
   • During Khalji's reign, Alauddin invaded Devagiri and accumulated enormous wealth.
2. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316):
   • Alauddin Khalji was the nephew of Jalal-ud-din-Khilji.
   • He was appointed during Jalaluddin Khalji's reign as both the Arizi-i-Mumalik (minister of war) and the Amir-i-Tuzuk (master of ceremonies).
   • He followed Balban’s Administration philosophy, which was diametrically opposed to Jalaluddin's policy of tolerance.
   • His military battles included Devagiri (1296, 1307, 1314), Gujarat (1299-1300), Rathambore (1301), Chittor (1303), and Malwa (1305).
   • He passed four laws to curb uprisings-
     • It was strictly prohibited to sell drugs and alcohol in public.
     • The security system was restructured, and the Sultan was promptly informed of every noble's secret activity.
     • He seized the nobility's property.
     • Festivities and social events were prohibited without the Sultan's consent. His reign was free of uprisings because of his strict regulations.
   • Alauddin established four distinct markets in Delhi, each overseen by a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi, including one for grain, another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, oil, butter, horses, cattle, and slaves.
   • Under the direction of an officer known as Naib-i-Riyasat, a distinct department named Diwan-i-Riyasat was established. Each merchant had a market department registration. The Munhiyans, a secret group, submitted reports to the Sultan about the activities of these marketplaces.

1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25) :
   • He was the founder of the Tughlaqs Dynasty.
   • During his five-year reign, he united the Warangal territories and grew the empire in Bengal. The Delhi sultanate reached the height of its power during his reign.
   • Policy of religious discrimination: He increased taxes on Hindus and decreased them on Muslims.
   • He was a proficient administrator.
     • He built irrigation canals and enhanced communication services and other forms of postal services.
     • Enhanced public utility works and fixed the forts.
     • Established Tughlaqabad, a city in Delhi.
2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq(1325-51):
   • Muhammad bin Tughlaq, a Delhi Sultan, sought to control south India better by shifting his capital from Delhi to Devagiri.
   • He forcibly moved the entire population to Devagiri, which was later renamed Daulatabad. However, after two years, the sultan abandoned Daulatabda due to water scarcity and the long journey.
   • In 1329 CE, he introduced a copper token currency to replace gold and silver coins, but it led to heavy losses.
   • Later, he replaced his verdict and all coins were redeemed in gold / silver, leaving the treasury empty.
   • To improve financial conditions, he increased land revenue on farmers of doab land between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, which led to a famine that led to a revolt. However, these harsh measures crushed the revolt.
   • Muhammad bin Tughlaq launched a scheme for takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) to farmers, setting up a separate department for agriculture, Diwan-i-amir-Kohi.
   • He was tolerant in religious matters and maintained diplomatic relations with countries like Iran, Egypt, and China.
   • During his reign, the kingdom experienced several rebellions by nobles and provincial governors. The Sultanate of Madurai was established due to Hassan Shah's rebellion, while the governors of Sindh, Multan, and Oudh rose in revolt against his authority.
3. Firoz shah Tughlaq (1351-89) :
   • After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death in 1351 CE, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was chosen as the Sultan by the nobles.
   • He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal as wazir (Prime Minister) to maintain the prestige of the Sultanate during this period.
   • Firoz Shah Tughlaq focused on strengthening his position over north India instead of claiming authority over south India and Deccan.
   • He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal, attacked Jajnagar, marched against Nagarkot, and collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jwalamukhi temple library. He also marched against Thatta and crushed a rebellion there.
   • He ran his administration according to the advice of the ulemas, pleasing the nobles and ensuring hereditary succession to their properties.
   • He levied taxes according to Islam, including Jiziya for non-Muslims and discarded special taxes on 28 items.
   • He showed intolerance towards Shia Muslims and Sufis, regarded Hindus as second-grade citizens, and was the precursor of Sikander Lodi and Aurangzeb.
   • During his reign, around 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi generated lot of revenue.
   • He developed royal factories called karkhanas, employing thousands of slaves and increasing the number of slaves by capturing defeated soldiers and young persons.
   • New towns were built, such as Firozabad near Red Fort, and new departments were established to support orphans and widows.

The Sayyid Dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan. He did not adopt the title of Sultan, but rather Masnad-i-Aali (Most High Post), and continued to mint coins in the names of previous Tughlaq monarchs.

1. Mubarak Shah (c. 1421 – 1433 CE)
   • The son of Khizr Khan, Mubarak Shah, succeeded him.
   • During his reign, Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi.
   • On the Yamuna River's banks, a new town called Mubarakabad was established.
2. Alam Shah (c. 1445 – 1451 CE)
   • Alam Shah, the last emperor of the Sayyid Dynasty, abdicated and retired to Budaun, Uttar Pradesh.
   • Bahlul Khan Lodi, the governor of Sirhind in Punjab, seized Delhi in 1451.

1. Bahlol Lodhi (c. 1451 – 1489 CE)
   • The Lodhi dynasty was established by Bahlol Lodhi.
   • He seized Jaunpur and also placed Dholpur and Kalpi's rulers under Delhi's sovereignty.
   • He instituted Bahlol copper coinage and absorbed the Sharqui dynasty.
   • His son Sikander Lodhi succeeded him after his death in approximately 1489 CE.
2. Sikander Lodhi (c. 1489 – 1517 CE)
   • Among the three Lodhi sovereigns, he was the best.
   • Many Rajput chiefs were defeated by him, and he eventually took control of all of Bihar. After attacking Bengal, he forced its monarch to sign a treaty with him, expanding his empire from Punjab to Bihar.
   • He was a capable administrator who constructed numerous irrigation projects and roads for the benefit of the people.
   • He unveiled a new system of account auditing and measurement called the Gazz-i-Sikandari.
   • He restored Jizya on non-Muslims and demolished numerous temples.
   • He established Agra in 1504 CE and wrote Persian poetry under his original name Gulrakhi.
3. Ibrahim Lodhi ( c. 1517 – 1526 CE)
   • He adopted the title Sikandar Shah.
   • He established Agra as his capital and also founded Sikandrabad.
   • In government offices, he banned using any language other than Persian.
   • Introduced the Gazz-i-Sikandari yard measurement system.

Delhi Sultanates adopted Persian as the official language of administration and court proceedings. The use of Persian influenced local languages, particularly Hindi and Urdu. The Urdu which developed later is heavily influenced by Persian in its vocabulary.

• Political Cause
  • The Sultanate was ruled by the Amirs, who consolidated power within the empire.
  • The population's participation in kingdom matters was denied, leading to a significant divide.
  • The rulers lacked administrative expertise and formal education, and their authority was based on the armed forces.
  • The Sultans relied on the feudal Governors’ armies, which periodically revolted due to incompetent leaders.
  • The king's policy of giving Jagirs to workers made them wealthy, leading to conspiracies and damage to the Sultanate's reputation.
  • The Sayyid and Lodi dynasties' political situation was weakened, leading to the rise of the feudal system.
• Social Cause
  • Religious intolerance led to societal divides between Hindus and Muslims.
  • Muslim rulers' partisan policies impacted Hindu interests, fostering animosity and jealousy.
  • That Period saw untouchability, casteism, and class notions.
  • Muslims referred to Hindus as "Kafirs,” or "Mlecchas."
  • Mutual distrust impacted the Sultanate's existence.
• Religious Cause
  • Ulema and devout Muslims dominated the Sultanate's policies.
  • Religious intolerance led to destruction of Hindu temples and idols.
  • Imposition of pilgrimage tax and Jizya damaged Hindu sentiments.
  • Anger over conversion on swordpoint led to revolt against the Sultanate, contributing to its downfall.
• Economic Cause
  • Financial instability of leaders as a result of Mongol invasion, army organization, raids, and temple looting.
  • The Sultanate's treasury was exhausted by Tughluq's ideas, affecting stability.
  • Insufficient income to cover expenses due to slave maintenance, nobility embezzlement, and poor tax collection.
  • Undeveloped trade and industry, and privileges for Muslims.
  • Economic shortcomings contributed to the downfall of the Sultanate.

• The dissolution of the Delhi Sultanate led to the emergence of numerous kingdoms, including the Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom at Gulbarga.
• The newly established states in Northern India engaged in warfare to establish borders, influence, or dominance over neighboring nations.
• The collapse led to a lack of direction and narrow lifestyles among the populace.
• The period also saw the rise of Bhaktism and Sufism.

Indian society underwent a transformation during the 12th-century Delhi Sultanate period. The sultanate is renowned for having successfully assimilated the Indian subcontinent into the world's cosmopolitan society. Indo-Islamic architecture developed and evolved throughout this era of architectural brilliance. The Delhi Sultanate came to an end in 1526 when Babur established the Mughal Empire by defeating the soldiers of Ibrahim Lodi, the last Lodi sultan, at the First Battle of Panipat. The Mughals governed the area for three centuries.