THEATRE IN INDIA Study Materials

Origin of Indian Drama and Ancient Sanskrit Plays

The origin of Indian drama probably lies in the tribal ritual dances and celebration of antiquity. What probably began as community participation would gradually break down into two groups—those who perform and those who watch, that is the actors and the audience.

In India, there developed a rich tradition in theatre, particularly the classical Sanskrit drama. Natyashastra ascribed to Bharata Muni, is the oldest treatise on dramaturgy and gives an interesting account of the origin of Indian Naatya tradition in its opening chapter.

Mythological Story on the Origin of Indian Theatre

It is said that the four Vedas—as repository of knowledge and wisdom were accessible to upper castes and classes (Varnas), and not to women and lower caste or class. Dissatisfied with this situation, the Gods went to Brahma, the creator, for a solution.

The creator suggested the creation of the Fifth veda (Panchamaveda) as Natyaveda.

This task was accomplished by Bharata Muni by way of extracting the wisdom of Rigveda, performative rituals of Saamveda, musicality of Yajurveda and emotive representations of Atharvaveda.

The voluminous work, thus created, embodied all physical, theoretical and conceptual ideas behind traditional Indian drama.

Natyashastra, thus, speaks about the thought process and behaviour of people, their temperament, problems in society, needs, sorrow, etc., paving the way and promise for a better life.

The early drama was a combination of mime, poetry, prose, dialogue, humour, songs and dance. This made theatre as an all-inclusive art form. Gradually it became an important medium for entertainment, learning, communication and reflexive thinking on human conditions.

Beauty of Naatyashastra

Naatyashastra was written around period between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. According to the text (Chapter 35), a theatre group should have persons specialised in seventeen types of works:

Bharata- Manager or producer or a multidimensional person

Vidooshaka- Jester

Tauripta- experts in playing musical instruments

Naja- actor or Dancer

Sootradhara- linking and interpreting the text

Natyakara- the playwright

Nandi- in praise of the Creator while invocating the play)

Nayaka- person in lead character

Mukutakara- Mask makers

Aabharanakara- person engaged in making ornaments for a performance

Malyakara- person engaged in making garlands/ ornaments

• Vesakara- costume makers

• Chitrakara- painter/artist

• Rajaka- person engaged in cleaning the costumes

• Karukara sculptor-decorator

• Kusilava- actors in role proficient as actor-dancer- musicians

This list helps us to understand the components of a theatre group. Interestingly Naatyashastra includes names of each and every allied work considered necessary for a performance. For that reason, the Rajakas or Malayakaras were honoured as a member of a theatre group, although they were not directly related to performances.

While the tradition of theatre in India certainly developed much before Naatyashastra, the systematic thinking or theorising about theatre arts took shape only because of the treatise. In fact, it is believed that Naatyashastra had developed by compiling and conceptualising the prevailing folk traditions. For Bharata Muni, the composite term ‘Abhinaya’ means— ‘Abhi’, meaning learning from the play and ‘ni’, meaning to carry it forward. It intends to entertain and educate people simultaneously. Ancient drama tradition can be categorised in two ways: 1. Lokadharmi or popular 2. Natyadharmi or conventional. Sanskrit plays had a ‘Sootradhaara’ who created a link of events in a play through commentary, musical interlude or interpretative extempore.

Language used in Classical Sanskrit Plays Interestingly, in Sanskrit drama characters could speak differently in classified dialects. The hero or the principal male characters speaking in Sanskrit; the heroine and principal female character in Prakrit; the royal attendants, servants and traders, rogues and villains, intriguers, cowherds, the people of the forest, and so on, in their respective dialects. This reveals the social categorisation of people of that time.

Evolution of Play Traditions in India

1. Early Origins: Fragments of palm leaves found in Central Asia date back to the Kushan period around the 1st century AD. The earliest Sanskrit play, Sariputra Prakarana by Ashvaghosha during King Kanishka’s reign, marks the beginning of Indian dramatic literature.

2. Glorious Sanskrit Era: The Gupta dynasty era had renowned poets and playwrights. Kalidasa’s timeless classics like Malvikaagnimitram and Abhijnanashakuntalam continue to be performed on stages. Shudraka’s masterpiece Mrichchkatikam and Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasam enriched Sanskrit drama.

3. Legacy of Bhavabhuti: Bhavabhuti, a scholarly Brahmin, contributed significantly with three works: two of which may be called historical/mythological- Mahaviracharitam and Uttaramacharitam; both dealing with the Ramayana, and the third- a romance titled Maalatimadhavam.

4. Decline of Sanskrit Drama: Political turmoil from the 9th to 12th centuries led to a decline in Sanskrit drama’s glory Language barriers also played a role in its decreasing popularity.

5. Rise of Prakrit and Folk Theatre: Despite the decline in Classical Sanskrit drama, regional languages like Prakrit gained prominence, fostering their own literary traditions. This period birthed a robust folk theatre tradition persisting through Indian history.

6. Urdu Theatre’s Influence: Wajid Ali Shah’s court became a significant hub for Urdu theatre, showcasing the patronage of performing arts during that time.

7. Southern Contributions: Tamil literature references dramatic performances, with enduring forms like Kuttu found in various folk expressions, notably the rural artistic tradition of therukuttu. Southern India’s most prominent contribution, however, lies in storytelling through dance drama forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Bhaagwata Mela Naatakam, Yakshagana, and Kuchipudi, blending drama, dance, mime, gesture, and music.

Reasons for decline of Classical Sanskrit theatre

1. As Sanskrit dramatists began to diverge towards poetry, and the lyrical writings started gaining popularity over the dramatic works.

2. The rigid orthodoxy of the Sanskrit theatre restricted the creative space of new playwrights who turned to other forms.

3. As Sanskrit became more and more embellished, it lost popularity among the masses.

4. It was increasingly confined to the religious sphere and among the Brahmins, while other languages such as Pali and Prakrit took its place.

5. With the advent of Muslim rulers, Sanskrit theatre took a definite backseat, as dance and music gained patronage

Prominent Ancient Sanskrit Plays

Folk Theatre

Folk Theatre

In India, folk theatre is a hybrid art form that combines elements from dance, music, pantomime, versification, recitation of epics and ballads, visual and performing arts, religion, and festival celebrations

Folk theatre, which has origins in native culture, is ingrained in the social values and local identity.

In addition to offering public amusement, it has long served Indian society as a means of interpersonal, inter-group, and inter village communication.

In India, folk theatre has been widely utilized to spread important messages about social, political and cultural concerns in order to raise public awareness

Being an indigenous form, it transcends all institutional barriers to human interaction and speaks to the populace directly. Describes the later life of Rama Based on the early life of Rama, the hero of Ramayana It is a complex love intrigue intermingled with sorcery and Tantric practices, including human sacrifice and much violence. It is regarded as the first example of traditional Sanskrit theatre. It deals with Sariputta or Sariputra, the disciple of Buddha. He has been mentioned by Kalhana as a poet in the King court of the Yashovarman of Kanyakubja Asvaghosha was part of Kanishka’s court from 78AD to 144 AD.

With the aid of numerous languages and regional customs, the folk theatre violently arose throughout the 15th and 16th centuries A.D. in a number of locations. The folk theatre had a mostly devout tone when it first emerged, but as time went on, its material grew more secular and it started to emphasise romantic folk tales, ballads of courage, and biographical descriptions of local heroes.

According to Bansi Kaul, folk theatre imparts “social wisdom” and shouldn’t just be seen as cheap pleasure. Folk theatre has been effectively utilised to spread social messages in the post-Independence era on topics like health, family planning, adult education, etc. For presentation and storytelling, a lot of contemporary playwrights draw extensively from folk tradition styles.

The “Ritual Theatre’’ and the “Theatre of Entertainment” are two major categories into which Indian folk theatre may be divided:

Religious 2. Secular

Folk theatres can be divided into three major categories based on their theme:

1. Ritual Theatre

2. Theatre of Entertainment

3. South Indian Theatre

Ritual Entertainment South Indian Theatre

Ritual theatre, put simply, is the performance of a myth or archetypal tale with the goal of promoting healing—typically to solve a problem, cope with a challenging experience, replenish depleted energies, or smooth over a transition.

Theatre of Entertainment

The purpose of this type of folk dance was to amuse the general public. It features secular issues including romance, love, bravery, and cultural and social customs.

South Indian Theatre

In contrast to north Indian theatre, which emphasises music, south Indian theatre places a greater emphasis on dance as a result of the demise of sanskrit classical theatre in North India.