Economy Pastoralism
Economy Pastoralism:
Rig Vedic society was pastoral society and cattle rearing was an important economic activity.
They were not nomadic people.
• Cattle were considered as a symbol of wealth, and a wealthy man was known as Gomat (one who owned many cattle).
• There was no concept of private property based on land ownership.
• The term for war in the Rig Veda was Gavishthi, which means search for cows.
Agriculture:
• Shifting agriculture was practiced.
• Ploughshare was mentioned in Rig Veda.
• Field was known as Kshetra.
• Ploughing is termed as Krishi in Rig Veda.
• The Rig Vedic people used wooden plough called Phala, Langala, and Sira.
• Sita means the furrow created by ploughing.
• Cattle driven water lifts using pulleys were also used.
• They had knowledge of different seasons for sowing, harvesting and thrashing.
• They cultivated Yavam (barley) apart from which no other grain is mentioned in Rig Veda.
Production:
• The term Ayas in the Rig Veda refers to copper and bronze.
•
Copper and bronze were produced but there are very less references to metallurgical activities.
• Karmara smith is mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• Spinning was termed as Siri.
• Some other professions were carpenters, potter, grinder of corn, and weavers.
• Chariot-maker enjoyed a special status in Rig Vedic society.
• Art of healing wounds and curing disease existed.
• Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) was produced.
Trade, Exchange and Redistribution:
• Panis were the traders.
• The unit of currency was Niskha, and the cows and gold ornaments of fixed value were the medium of exchange.
• Danas (donations) and Dakshinas (payment for certain services) were also prevalent.
• Taxes didn’t exist and the kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute called Bali.
• Prestations (gift exchange and redistribution) had an important economic role.
Transport:
• Boats were also used for transport.
• Bullock carts, horses and horses drawn chariots were used for transport.
Introduction Sources Archaeological Sites of Vedic History
Introduction:
• Harappan culture was followed by another great civilisation and culture known as Vedic culture.
• After the decline of Harappan Culture a new culture emerged and formation of Janapadas took place.
• The emergence of Iron and their usage in agriculture also enhanced.
• The people in Vedic culture called themselves Indo- Aryans, a linguistic term and refers to speakers of a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo- European family of languages.
Sources of Vedic History
• Archaeological sites, pottery and literature.
Archaeological sites and pottery.
Archaeological evidence for the Vedic period is relatively scarce, but there are a number of important sites that have been excavated. These sites include:
• Hastinapur, in Uttar Pradesh, is believed to be the capital of the Kuru kingdom, mentioned in the Mahabharata.
• Kausambi, also in Uttar Pradesh, was a major city on the trade route between the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Deccan.
• Rajghat, in Uttar Pradesh, is the site of a fortified settlement that dates back to the early Vedic period.
• Atranjikhera, in Uttar Pradesh, is another important site from the early Vedic period.
Pottery is one of the most important sources of information about the Vedic period.
• The most common type of pottery from this period is Painted Grey Ware (PGW). PGW is typically grey in color and is decorated with geometric patterns. It is thought to have been introduced by the Aryans, who are believed to have migrated to India from Central Asia during the early Vedic period.
• Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) is a type of pottery that is decorated with a red or ochre colored slip. It is found in the northwestern part of India and is dated to the late Harappan period and the early Vedic period.
Black and Red Ware (BRW) is a type of pottery that is typically black or red in colour. It is found throughout India and is dated from the early Vedic period to the late Mauryan period.
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is a type of pottery that is typically black in colour and has a high polish. It is found in the northern part of India and is dated from the late Vedic period to the early Mauryan period.
Literature of Vedic Age
Literature of Vedic Age
The Vedic corpus is generally divided into Early Vedic and Later Vedic texts.
Early Vedic literature (1500 – 600 BCE):
The Vedic texts were memorized and were transmitted orally from generation to generation hence called as Shruti (to hear).
Earliest known written scripts of Vedas are from 10th –
11th century.
Vedic literature comprises four literary texts:
Vedas/Samhitas
Brahmana
Aranyaka
Upanishad
• Vedas:
• There are four Vedas as follows:
• Rig Veda – It contains hymns, beliefs, and practices
of the Early Vedic people.
• Sama Veda – Composed in musical tones, it is primarily a collection of melodies and chants.
• Yajur Veda – Contains rituals, sacrificial formulas for religious ceremonies.
• Atharva Veda – Includes charms, magical spells, and incantations, along with knowledge of daily life and healing practices.
• The first three Vedas are jointly called as ‘Vedatrayi’
i.e., Trio of Vedas.
• Every Veda generally has four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad.
• Vedas are called Apaurasheya i.e., not created by man but God gifted.
• They are considered as Nitya i.e., existing in all eternity.
• Rig Veda:
• Rig Veda is the oldest text in the world hence called as the first testament of “the mankind”. It is written in Vedic Sanskrit.
• Rig Veda is dated to between 1500 and 1000 BCE.
• The Rig Veda is a collection of 1,028 hymns, divided into 10 Mandals (books). There are a total of 10,600 mantras.
• The priests related to the Rig Veda are Hotri.
• Only surviving recension of the Rig Veda is the
Shakala shakha.
• Books 2 to 7 are the earliest and the Books 1, 8, 9 and 10 are assigned to a later period.
• The Third mandala of Rig Veda contains Gayatri Mantra.
• The 10th mandala contains Purushasukta which explains the four varnas namely- Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
• The Rigveda includes more than a thousand hymns, called “Suktas”, composed by Sages (learned men and women) praising various gods and goddesses.
• It had five branches: Sakalya, Baskala, Asvalayana, Sankhayana and Madhujya.
• The Rig Veda has been included by the UNESCO in the list of literature.
• Though the Rig Veda is in Sanskrit, about 300 words of the Munda and Dravidian languages have been identified in it, suggesting cultural mix with earlier inhabitants.
• Yajur Veda:
• It is a book of sacrificial prayers containing rituals and hymns.
• Its hymns were recited by the Adhwaryus priests.
• The texts are further divided into two parts:
• The Shukla Yajur Veda (also known as Vajasaneya) consists solely of mantras and includes the Madhyandina and Kanva recensions.
• The Krishna Yajur Veda, on the other hand, contains both mantras and prose explanations or commentaries. It includes the Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya, and Kapishthala recensions.
• Sama Veda:
• It is book of chants containing 1549 verses which are
important for Indian music.
• In Samveda all other hymns are derived from Rig Veda excluding 75 Hymns.
• Most of its verses are taken from Rig Veda.
• It was meant to be sung at times of Soma sacrifice.
• Gandharveda (also called Natya Sashtra) was also its Upveda.
•
Its hymns were recited by Udgatri.
• Recensions (Shakhas) of the Sama Veda are Kauthuma, Jaiminiya (Talavakara), and Ranayaniya.
• Atharva Veda:
• It is the latest of the four vedas and entirely different from the other three in content and style.
• It is book of magical hymns to ward off the evil spirits and diseases. It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the people.
• Gopatha Brahmana is associated with it.
• The Shaunaka and Paippalada are its two parts.
• Samhitas:
• Samhitas are the primary collections of Vedic hymns.
• These texts are ritualistic in nature and detail the social and religious significance of various rituals.
• Brahmanas:
• Each Samhitas/Vedas has added texts called Brahmanas.
• Brahmana have comments on the hymns and rituals.
• Various sacrifices and rituals have been discussed in Brahmanas.
• The most important Brahmana is the Satpatha Brahmana, which is attached to the Yajur Veda.
• Aranyaka and Upanishads:
• Each Brahmana is accompanied by an Aranyaka and an Upanishad.
• The Aranyaka was primarily written for hermits and students living in the forest.
• It contains mystical ritual instructions meant to be performed in secrecy by sages living in the wilderness.
• The Aranyakas oppose traditional sacrifices, focusing instead on meditation, and are considered the concluding sections of the Brahmanas.
• The Upanishads focus on philosophical inquiries.
• Known as Vedanta, the Upanishads are regarded as the culmination of the Vedas, as they appear towards the end.
• There are 108 Upanishads, with the Vrihadaranyaka
being the oldest.
• The Mandukya Upanishad is where the phrase
"Satyamev Jayate" originates.
• The Chandogya Upanishad, the largest of the Upanishads, is linked to the first three ashrams and discusses the two main types of marriage.
• Anuloma marriage – The marriage of a man in
his own varna or below his varna.
• Pratiloma marriage – The marriage of a girl/ woman in a varna lower than her own, deemed rare and not sanctioned by the Vedas.
Later Vedic Literature 600 BC to 600 AD:
• Literature of this age comprises 6 literary works.
• Vedangas:
• The word ‘Vedanga’ means the ‘limbs of the Vedas’.
• They are the supplementary texts to aid the understanding of the Vedas.
• They do not qualify as Shruti as they are considered of human origin and are written in the form of Sutras. There are six Sutras namely,
• Shiksha (Phonetics): ‘Pratishakhya’ the oldest text on phonetics.
• Kalpa Sutra (Rituals): (a) Shrauta Sutra/ Shulva Sutras-deal with the sacrifices, (b) Grihya Sutra
– deals with the family ceremonies, (c) Dharma Sutras – deals with the rituals of Dharma, Varnas, Ashramas, etc.
• Vyakarana (Grammar): ‘Ashtadhyayi’ by Panini is the oldest grammar of the world.
• Nirukta (Etymology)
• Chhanda (Metrics)
• Jyotisha (Astronomy): The Vedanga Jyotisha was the oldest Jyotisha Text.
• Dharmashastras:
• They deal with Dharma (code of conduct) that signifies ‘a righteous moral law’.
• They are subdivided into Dharmasutras (c. 600 to 300 BCE) and Smritis (c. 200 BCE to 900 AD).
• Out of the four varnas, three varnas, i.e., Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered Dvija.
• According to Dharma, four ashrams were:
• Brahmacharya (Celibate studenthood)
• Grihastha (Household caretaker)
• Vanaprastha (Partial renunciation)
• Sanyasa (Complete renunciation)
• Six famous Smritis:
• Manu Smriti
• Yjnavalkya Smriti
• Narad Smriti
• Parashara Smriti
• Brihaspati Smriti
• Katyayana Smriti
• Mahakavyas (Epics):
• There are two epics namely the Ramayana by Valmiki and the Mahabharata by Ved Vyasa.
• Ramayana is considered as the Adi-Kavya (first conscious poetry).
• They are part of both oral and written traditional history.
• Upavedas:
• Ayurveda: Associated with medicine and Yajur Veda.
• Gandharva Veda: Associated with music and Sama Veda.
• Dhanurveda: Associated with the art of Warfare and Yajur Veda.
• Shilpaveda & Arthaveda: Associated with the science of craft and wealth, and Atharva Veda.
• Puranas (c. 600 BC to 400 BC):
• The word ‘Puranas’ literally means ‘old’.
• They have a well-defined perception of the past traditions and shed light on the emergence and development of Hindu religious practices.
• They reflect the Brahmanical social and religious
values.
• The Puranas are further divided into 18 Mahapuranas such as Brahma, Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, etc. and numerous Upapuranas (secondary Puranas).
Geography
Geography
The Aryan Invasion Theory:
Many scholars are of the view that the Aryans came to India as migrants from Central Asia. It is also believed that several waves of Indo-Aryan migration might have happened.
The traits of the culture of Aryans cover Eastern Europe and Central Asia which is geographically interlinked with India, West Asia and Europe.
One of the accepted areas of the Aryan home is Eastern Europe-Central Asia, north of the Black Sea.
Rig Veda’s Geographic Descriptions:
Rivers, mountains and ocean mentioned in Rig Veda gives clear idea about the geographical area in which Rig Vedic people lived.
Mountains Himvant (Himalaya) and Munjavanta
(Hindukush) are mentioned in Rig Veda.
Rig Veda mentions 40 rivers out of which 21 has been mentioned in Nadisukta only.
Aryans in Rig Vedic age remain confined to the area called Sapta Sindhu (Land of the seven rivers). Sapta Sindhu comprises river Sarasvati and Sindhu along with its five tributaries namely Asakani, Vitasta, Vipasa, Parushni and Satuadri.
• The Sapta Sindhu region is considered to be the birthplace of the Vedic civilization. The name literally means “land of the seven rivers”, and it refers to the seven major rivers that flow through the region: the Indus, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, and Saraswati
Early Vedic Society
Early Vedic Society / Rig Vedic Society (1500 BCE and 1000 BCE):
• The political, social and economic aspects of life of this period are reflected in the Rig Vedic hymns.
• No written documents of this period are found as things were transmitted orally.
• Early Vedic culture is corelated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture of the Iron Age in North India.
• Nowadays, DNA studies are also used for understanding ancient migrations. M17, a genetic marker (DNA), is
•
Names of some of the rivers mentioned in Rig Veda are as follows:
| Rig Vedic Name | Present Name | Location |
| Vitasta Asikni Parushni Vipasa Shatuadri Sindhu Suvastu Kubha Krurm Gomati Sarasvati Drishdwati | Jhelum Chenab Ravi Beas Satluj Indus Swat Kabul Kurram Gomal Sarsuti Ghagha | Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Afghanistan Afghanistan Afghanistan Afghanistan Rajasthan Rajasthan |
said to have been found among the speakers of Indo- Europeans.
• Cultural Mix Though Rig Veda was in Vedic Sanskrit, words of Munda and Dravidian languages were also found in this scripture. This shows a cultural mix.
• Animals:
• In Rig Veda the term Asva (Horse) came around 215 times.
• The word Vrishabha (Bull) came 170 times.
• Tigers and Rhinos were not mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• Aryans domesticated horses and used chariots.
• Burial Practices: They buried and also cremated the dead.
• Religious Beliefs:
• Consumption of soma drink and cult of fire was prevalent.
• Agricultural Society:
• There is no trace of the urban way of life in Rig Veda.
• They used bows and arrows.
Extensive foundations for village settlements were also laid during this period
Social Divisions:
• The Vedic people (Aryans) distinguished themselves from the non-Aryan people.
• The Word ‘Aryan’ Means the one who Is noble/superior.
• Varna was the term used by Aryans to refer to colour and category.
• The Rig Veda refers to Arya varna and Dasa varna.
• Dasa were treated as slaves who became Sudras in the later period.
• Social Distincitons:
• Horse drawn chariots and bronze objects were possessed by few, suggesting social distinction.
• These social divisions are considered to have arisen towards the end of the early Vedic period. Various professional groups such as warriors, priests, cattle- keepers, farmers, barbers are also mentioned.
• Panis were caravan traders.
• Caste: According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda, the different Varnas originated from various parts of the Purusha's body: Brahmins from the mouth, Kshatriyas from the arms, Vaishyas from the thighs, and Sudras from the feet.
• Egalitarianism: Vedic society was largely egalitarian that means women were treated equally with men and varna system was not rigid and not based on birth.
Tribes and Family:
• Kinship was the basis of social structure of Rig Vedic society.
• Kula (Family) was the basic social unit and Kulapa
was the head of the family.
• The family was part of a larger grouping, called Vis or Clan. Vis also refers to common people.
• One or more than one clans made Jana or Tribe. The word Jana was mentioned in Rig Veda, but Janapada was not mentioned.
• Gramas means villages.
• There were joint families in the Rig Vedic age, which followed the patrilineal system.
Women
• Women had a respectable position.
• Society was patriarchal.
• Presence of male children and cattle were preferred.
• Women attended assemblies and offered sacrifices.
• Marriage was common but primitive practices were also considered.
• Polyandry was practiced, means a woman can marry more than one man.
• Widow remarriage was also known.
• Little evidence of child marriage is there.
Vedic Religions and the Rituals:
• Natural forces like sun, moon, rivers, mountains and rains were revered.
• Religion was naturalistic and polytheistic.
• Indra was the most important God who was also called
Purandara, means destroyer of settlements.
• Agni was seen as intermediary between God and people.
• Surya was a God who removed darkness.
• Ushas was the Goddess of dawn.
• Adithi, Prithvi and Sinivali are other Goddesses.
• Sindhu was river Goddess.
• Varuna was God of water. This God was upholder of natural order.
• Soma was God of plants. Soma drink was part of the rituals.
There are few references to Rudra or Shiva.
• Dharma (personal actions) signifies cosmic ordinance, often in connection with the sense of natural law.
• Rita (“truth” or “order”), in Indian religion and philosophy, is the cosmic order mentioned in the Vedas. Rita is the impersonal physical order of the universe, the order of sacrifice, and the moral law of the world. Because of rita, movements of the sun and moon and orderly change in the seasons.
• As Hinduism developed from the ancient Vedic religion, the concept of rita led to the doctrines of dharma (duty) and karma (accumulated effects of good and bad actions).
• Vedic religion features the belief that rita was guarded by Varuna, the god-sovereign, who was assisted by Mitra, the god of honour, and that the proper performance of sacrifices to the gods was necessary to guarantee its continuance.
• Violation (anrita) of the established order by incorrect or improper behaviour, even if unintentional, constituted sin and required careful expiation.
Polity and Political Conflicts
Polity and Political Conflicts:
• Various units of habitation and divisions such as Janas, Vis, Gana, Grama and Kula are referred to in the Rig Veda.
• The concept of polity developed in the Rig Vedic time.
• Vedas speak about the armies and various battles fought among Aryans and natives.
• They not only fought with the non-Aryans, but also fought among themselves. It’s because of that they invoked the support of the gods in their battles.
• Battles were mostly fought for cattle’s and material possessions.
• They strongly believed that prayers, sacrifices and rituals could offer support in their mundane life.
• The Bharatas and Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans who were supported by Vasishta, the priest.
• The region of India was named Bharata Varsha after the tribe of Bharatas.
• The Battle of Ten Kings, known as 'Dasarajna,' was fought between the Bharata clan and ten chiefs along the banks of the river Paurushni, identified with the Ravi. Sudas, leader of the Bharatas, emerged victorious, solidifying the clan's dominance.
• The Purus were one of the defeated clans. After the battle, the Purus and Bharatas formed an alliance, eventually giving rise to the Kuru clan. Later, the Kurus allied with the Panchalas and established their control over the Upper Ganga Valley.
Administration:
• Tribal society was in the majority, and tribes were called as Jana.
Rajan: Chief of the tribe/Jana. Rajan was a hereditary chief. The main duty of the king was to protect the tribes.
Mahisi: Chief queen of the tribe.
• Rajan was elected by the assembly called Samiti.
• Sabha was assembly of select elders. It was basically a kin-based assembly and the practice of women attending it was stopped in later-Vedic times. It discussed pastoral affairs and performed judicial and administrative functions and exercised judicial authority.
• Samiti was an assembly of people. Sabha performed judicial functions, which the Samiti did not.
• Vidhata was an assembly of tribes for secular, religious
and military purposes.
• Gana was an assembly or troop. The leader of the Gana is generally called Ganapati.
• Women attended Vidhata and Sabhas.
• The king sought the support of Sabha and Samiti for his activities.
• Parisad: It was a tribal military assembly, partly matriarchal and partly patriarchal. However, the variety of the references lead to the non-Vedic character of the parisad.
• Purohita was the priest who gives advice to the king.
• Vedic society was militaristic.
• Senani was the chief of the army.
• Bows, daggers, axes were the main weapons of the war.
• Gopa or Gopati means chief of Cattle.
• Bali was voluntary contributions made by people to the king.
• Vrajapati was the officer who controlled the entire territory.
• Gramini was the head of the village.
• Memorizing of chronicles, dynastic histories or epic tales was the work of a different group of people, the Sutas and Maagadhas (bards and chroniclers), who were the descendants of priestly families of the Vedic period.