Harsha and Rise of Regional Kingdoms Study Materials

Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar

Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (500 - 647 A.D.)

The Pushyabhuti dynasty emerged as a significant ruling family after the Gupta Empire’s fall.

The capital of the Pushyabhutis was Thanesar, located near Kurukshetra in Haryana.

Key sources of information about the Pushyabhuti dynasty include the Harshacharita (biography of Harsha) and Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang’s travelogues.

Prabhakar Vardhana (mid-6th century CE):

He was a skilled military general and established marital alliances with the Maukharis of Kannauj.

He fought against the Gurjaras and the Huns and established his authority as far as Malwa and Gujarat.

After Prabhakar Vardhana’s death, his elder son Rajya Vardhana succeeded him as king however he was treacherously killed by Shashanka, the king of Gauda (Bengal and Bihar).

Harshvardhan (606-647 A.D.):

He was known as “Harsha” and also called the last great Hindu emperor of north India. He has been described as the “lord of the north” (sakalauttarapathanatha). He assumed the title of “Siladitya” as noted in the travel records of Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Hsuan Tsang).

• Religion: Originally a Shaiva, he also supported Buddhism and made generous donations to Buddhists.

• Madhuban Copper Plate Inscriptions of 632 A.D. record a gift of land to two Brahmans.

• Origin: Succeeded his brother Rajya Vardhana (605-606 CE) after Rajya Vardhana left governance to campaign against Devagupta of Malwa and Shashanka of Gauda (Bengal), he defeated Devagupta but was killed by Shashanka, who also occupied Kannauj. Harsha ascended the throne at the age of sixteen and proved to be a skilled warrior and administrator and brought Kannauj under the sovereignty of Pushyabhutis.

• Geographical Spread: He controlled the five regions: Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Orissa, and Mithila. His feudatories included Kashmir, Nepal and Valabhi. The southern boundary of the empire was the Narmada.

• He defeated Shashanka of Bengal to control Kongoda in Orissa.

• Nausasi copper plate inscription mentions how he defeated Vallabhi king Dhruvasena II and ruler of Sindh. Harsha’s daughter was married to Dhruvsena II.

• Harsha Vardhana’s sister, Rajyashri, was married to Grahavarmana of Maukharis of Kannauj.

•
Other feudatories were Kamrupa’s king Bhaskaravarman,Dhruvabhatta, Purnavarman, and Udita.

• Forest tribes of Vindhyas paid tribute to Harsha and supported him militarily.

Harshavardhana Empire

• Capital: Harsha shifted his capital from Thanesar to Kanauj. Kanauj was located in the rich agricultural region of the western Ganges Plain.

• Conflict with Pulakesin II: The Aihole inscription (634 A.D.) mentions that Harsha was defeated by Pulakeshin II, the Western Chalukyan king of Badami, on the banks of the Narmada River. However, some Chinese records suggest that this victory was short-lived, as Harsha soon defeated Pulakeshin II. After the war, a truce was reached, and Harsha ruled peacefully for the next 30 years to the north of the Narmada River, while Pulakeshin II continued to control the Deccan region.

• Harsha introduced the Harsha Samvat calendar after his conquest of Nepal.

• The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, known as the "Prince of Travelers" and the author of Si-Yu-Ki, visited India between 629–644 CE. He formed a close friendship with

Harsha and provided a detailed account of Kannauj’s beauty, grandeur, and prosperity.

• After Harsha’s death, his kingdom quickly fragmented into smaller states.

Harsha’s relations with China:

• Harsh had diplomatic relations with the Chinese.

• T’ang Emperor sent three embassies to his court in 643 A.D. and again in 647 A.D.

• The last embassy, under Wang-hiuen-tse, visited India in 647 CE, after Harsha’s passing.

Harshvardhan’s administration

It was similar to the Guptas but more feudal and decentralized.

Council of Ministers:

• The emperor was assisted by a Council of Ministers

    141

(Mantri Parishad) in his duties. The council played an important role in the selection of the king as well as in framing the foreign policy of the empire.

• The prime minister was of the most important position in the Council of Ministers.

• Avanti - Minister for Foreign Relations and War,

• Simhananda - Commander-in-Chief,

• Kuntala - Chief Cavalry Officer,

• Skandagupta – Chief Commandant of Elephant Force,

• Dirghadhvajas - Royal Messengers,

• Banu - Keeper of Records,

• Mahaprathihara - Chief of the Palace Guard,

• Sarvagata - Secret Service Department.

Administrative Hierarchy was divided into the following

levels:

• Bhukti – Province,

• Vaishyas – District,

• Pathaka - Sub division of Vaishyas,

• Grama – Village.

Justice System:

• Criminal law was more severe than Gupta’s age.

• Banishment and cutting of the limbs were usual punishments. Trial by ordeal was in practice.

• According to Hieun Tsang, perfect law and order prevailed throughout the empire, as the law-enforcing agencies were strong.

• Corporal punishment for serious offenses was in practice.

• However, the death penalty was usually avoided. Offenses against social morality and defiance of the law were punished by maiming.

• Harsha traveled across the kingdom frequently to ensure his familiarity with his people. He was accessible to people and kept a closer watch on his tributary rulers.

Army:

• Harsha had a substantial army, supplemented by forces from feudatories when needed.

• Military power shifted to skandhavaras or military camps under Harsha’s rule.

• He paid great attention to the discipline and strength of the army. The army consisted of elephants, cavalry and infantry.

• Horses were imported.

• Ordinary soldiers were known as Chatas and Bhatas.

• The cavalry officers were called Brihadisvaras.

• Infantry officers were known as Baladhikritas and Mahabaladhikritas.

• Hieun Tsang mentions the four divisions (chaturanga) of Harsha’s army.

Revenue Administration:

• Bhaga, Hiranya, and Bali were the three kinds of tax collected during Harsha’s reign.

• Bhaga was the land tax paid in kind. One-sixth of the produce was collected as land revenue.

• Hiranya was the tax paid by farmers and merchants in cash.

• The crown land and its revenues were divided into four

parts.

• Part I - for carrying out the affairs of the state,

• Part II - for paying the ministers and officers of the crown,

• Part III - for rewarding men of letters,

• Part IV - for charity to religious institutions.

• Land grants:

• Land grants to priests for special services continued during Harsha’s rule. These grants had privileges similar to Brahmadeya lands.

• Land grants to officers by charters, possibly in lieu of salary, likely began with Harsha.

• Harsha issued fewer coins during his reign.

Religious Policy of Harsha

• Harsha was a worshipper of Shiva but later converted to Buddhism.

• He converted to Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Hieun Tsang and Rajyasri.

• Harsha summoned two Buddhist assemblies: one at

Kannauj and the other at Prayag.

• In 643 CE, a grand assembly was held in Kannauj, attended by representatives of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism.

• Hsuan Tsang and others delivered discourses on Mahayana doctrines during the assembly.

• The event was also attended by subordinate kings, including those from Vallabhi and Assam.

Prayag Assembly

• Harsha convened quinquennial assemblies known as Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayag.

• During these, he distributed his wealth among Buddhists, Vedic scholars and the poor people. Harsha offered fabulous gifts to the Buddhist monks on all four days of the assemblage.

• It was an important event during Harsha’s reign. It used to be organised every 5th year.

• It was related to Buddhism. Shiva and Vishnu deities were also revered in this assembly.

• Hiuen Tsang took part in these events and noted that the principles of Buddhism had significantly influenced Hindu society. He observed that people enjoyed complete freedom in their religious practices.

• Social harmony prevailed among the followers of

various creeds. Harsha treated the Vedic scholars and the Buddhist bhikkhus alike and distributed charities equally to them.

• Harsha made huge charities after the assembly.

Hieun Tsang’s Description of Harsha’s Empire Women:

• Sati was prevalent. Yasomatidevi, wife of Prabhakara

Vardhana, immolated herself after the death of her husband.

• Women wore purdah. Hieun Tsang, however, added that the purdah system was not followed among the higher class.

Societal System:

• The caste system was much more rigid and was firmly established in Hindu society. According to Hieun Tsang, the occupations of the four divisions of society continued to be in practice as in the previous times.

• The butchers, fishermen, dancers and sweepers were asked to stay outside the city.

• Even though the caste system was rigid, there was no social conflict among the various sections of society.

Cities and Towns:

• Hiuen Tsang provides detailed descriptions of the structure, aesthetics, and safety measures of India's cities, towns, and villages. He viewed India as a land of countless villages, numerous towns, and large cities, similar to China. He noted that Pataliputra had lost its prominence, with Kanauj rising to take its place.

• He describes the grandeur of Kanauj, highlighting its impressive structures, beautiful gardens, and a museum filled with rare collections.

• Hiuen Tsang also points out the refined appearance of Kanauj's residents, their luxurious clothing, and their deep appreciation for learning and the arts.

• According to Hiuen Tsang, most towns were surrounded by outer walls with inner gates. While the walls were wide and high, the streets and lanes were narrow.

• • Residential houses featured wooden balconies coated with lime mortar, and the floors were smeared with cow dung for purity and hygiene.

• Large mansions, public buildings, Buddhist monasteries, and viharas were grand, multi-storeyed structures made from kiln-fired bricks, red sandstone, and marble.

• Harsha commissioned the construction of numerous viharas, monasteries, and stupas along the banks of the Ganges.

• He also established charitable institutions to accommodate travelers and provide care for the sick and poor. Free hospitals and rest houses (dharmasalas) were built in every town to offer shelter to travelers and outsiders.

• Hospitals were set up to provide medical treatment free of charge.

Lifestyle:

• The life pattern of the people of India during the rule of Harsha is known from the accounts of Hieun Tsang.

• People lived a simple life. They dressed in colorful cotton and silk clothes. The art of weaving fine cloth had reached perfection.

• Both men and women adorned themselves with gold and silver ornaments. The king wore extraordinary ornaments.

Art during Harshvardhan:

• The art of the Harsha period mostly followed the Gupta style.

• Hiuen Tsang also speaks of a copper statue of Buddha

with eight feet in height.

• The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur, Chattisgarh dedicated to Vishnu with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.

• Dating c 625-650, a large inscription records that it was built by Vasata, the window of the Somavanshi King, Harsha Guptha during the reign of their son Mahashivagupta Balarjuna(c 595-655 BC).

Inscriptions of Harsha

• The Madhuban plates speak much on the family of Harsha.

• Sonepat plates discloses the names and reign of many kings of the dynasty.

• The Bankkhera inscription confirms that Harsh was an efficient ruler and artsman.

Literary Contribution of Harshvardhan:

• Accomplished writers at Harsha’s court:

• Banabhatta (author of Harshacharita, Kadambari and

Parvatiparinay).

• Mayura (author of Mayurashataka and Suryashataka).

• Renowned grammarian Bhartrihari (author of

Vakapadiya).

• Matanga Divakara.

• Harsha was a significant patron of arts and learning. Notable achievements and talents of Harsha:

    143

• He wrote three dramas: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali (both romantic comedies), and Nagananda (based on Bodhisattva Jimutavahana).

• Authored a work on grammar and two Sutra works.

• Composed inscriptions Madhuban and Banskhera, showcasing his calligraphic skills.

• Proficient flute player.

• Established a large monastery at Nalanda.

• Brahmagupta was a legendary mathematician who lived in the reign of Harsha. He composed Brahmasiddhant which was later translated into Arabic by Al-Fazri.

Educational Contribution of Harshvardhan:

• Nalanda University was prominent.

• Harsha donated 100 villages to Nalanda University to maintain its expenses.

• Hieun Tsang also spent some time at Nalanda University.

Nalanda University:

• Hieun Tsang recorded the fame of Nalanda University.

• Shilabhadra, a reputed Buddhist scholar, who probably hailed from Assam, was the head of the University during the visit of Hieun Tsang.

Post Gupta Age

Post Gupta Age (550-750 A.D)

In the sixth century, after the reign of Gupta, the northern part of India was again divided into several kingdoms. The following were important kingdoms:

• Maitrakas of Valabhi, Gujarat (490-776 A.D)

• Hunas in Punjab

• Maukharis of Kannauj (554-605 A.D.)

• Yashovarman of Malwa

• Vakatakas in Deccan

• Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (vardhana Dynasty)

(500-647 A.D.)

• Later Guptas of Magadh (490-725 A.D.)

Sources

Literary Sources

Bana’s Harshacharitta

•
Hieun Tsang’s Si-Yu-Ki

• Epigraphical Sources

• Madhuban Copper plate Inscription, UP

• Issued by King Harsha to a group of Brahmins in the year 631 AD.

• The inscription is written in Sanskrit in the Brahmi script. It records the grant of villages to Brahmins.

• Sonpat Inscription on Copper Seal, Haryana.

• It is dated to the 7th century CE and records the name and title of King Harshavardhana.

• Banskhera Copper plate Inscription, UP

• Issued by King Harshavardhana in the year 628 AD.

• Records grant of villages to Brahmins.

• The inscription provides information about the reign of King Harshavardhana, the administrative system of his kingdom, and the social and religious conditions of the time.

• Nalanda Copper-plate Inscription, Bihar

• Dated to 860 CE.

• Provides evidence of the patronage of Buddhism by the Palas as Devapaladeva of Bengala (Pala Empire) granted area to build a monastery at Nalanda on request of Sri Maharaja of Suvarnadvipa, Balaputra (Indonesia).

• Aihole Inscription, Karnataka

• Sanskrit inscription dated to 634-35 CE.

• Composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti, and it is engraved on a stone slab at the Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India.

• The inscription is a eulogy of Pulakeshin II of Chalukya Dynasty, and it records his victories over several neighboring kingdoms, including the Vakatakas, the Pallavas, and the Maukharis.

• It also provides information about the administrative system of the Chalukya kingdom and the social and religious conditions of the time.

• Mandsaur Inscription, Madhya Pradesh

• Mentions how Yasodharman, the King of Malwa

defeated Huna Army in 528AD.

• Aphsad inscription, Bihar

• Mentions how Ishan Varman (550-560 A.D.) of

Maukharia Dynasty fought and defeated the Huns.

• It was by Adityasena, King of Thanesar from Pushyabhuti Dynasty.

• Mokhalinam clay seal

• In Brahmi script shows that the Maukhari family which ruled Kannauj in 6th Century AD (existed from Mauryan times).

• Asirgarh copper plate inscription, Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh

• Mentions Ishanvarmana of Maukhari Dynasty who assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’.

• Mentions rise of the Maukhari dynasty and their genealogy.

• By Maukhari king Sarvavarman.

• Mentions Ishanvarmana’s victory over Huna kings.

• It is in Sanskrit with the upper part showing many emblems—a bull, an umbrella, and two men carrying axes and a sunshade and a stick.

• Kura Stone Inscription, Punjab, Pakistan

• It is dated to the 5th century CE and records the construction of a Buddhist monastery by a person named Rotta Siddhavriddhi during the reign of the Huna ruler Toramana.

• The inscription is written in Sanskrit in the Brahmi script.

• It shows Buddhist patronage by Hunas and how they adopted Indian titles and customs.

Maitraka of Vallabhi

Maitraka of Vallabhi (490 - 776 A.D)

• It was an Indian dynasty that ruled Saurashtra, Gujarat

from the 5th to the 8th century A.D.

• Origin: They were tributary chiefs of the Guptas in western India. Its founder, Bhatarka, was a general who, taking advantage of the decay of the Gupta empire, established himself as ruler of the independent kingdom of Saurashtra, Gujarat.

• Capital: Vallabhi was developed as the Maitrakas’ capital and a center of learning. Vallabhi was also a thriving port town on the Arabian Sea with a strong trade and commerce presence.

• Geographical Spread: Under the powerful Shiladitya I (c. late 600 A.D.), they extended their influence up to Malwa and Rajasthan. Later, however, the Maitrakas suffered at the hands of the Chalukyas of the Deccan and Harsha of Kannauj.

• Battle of Vallabi: Dhruvasena II was a significant ruler among the Maitrakas.

• Nausasi copper plate inscription of 706 A.D. mentions how he was defeated by Harshvardhan in the Battle of Vallabhi.

•
However, he was reinstated and married to Harsha Vardhana’s daughter.

Decline: The Maitrakas ruled until the 8th century when Arab attacks weakened their power.

The Maukharis of Kannauj

The Maukharis of Kannauj (510 - 605 A.D.)

The Maukharies were subordinate rulers of the Guptas and used the title of “Samanta.”

They ruled over Kannauj, western Uttar Pradesh.

• Decline

• Shashanka, the ruler of Bengal (Gauda), and Devagupta, the ruler of Malwa, jointly attacked and killed Grahavarmana, the last Maukhari king.

• Following a successful campaign by Harsha Vardhana, the kingdom of Kannauj was incorporated into the Pushyabhuti dynasty.

• Harsha    relocatedhis    capital    f    rom    Thanesar (Kurukshetra) to Kannauj.

• Sources

• The Maukharies are referenced in Patanjali’s work, the Asirgarh copper plate inscription, and the Aphsad inscription.

• A clay seal inscribed with the legend "Mokhalinam" (Pali: "of the Mokhalis/Maukhalis/Maukharis") in the Brahmi script, dating back to the time of Mauryan emperor Ashoka (272 - 232 BCE), indicates that the Maukhari family existed during the Mauryan period (400 - 200 BCE).

Ishanavarmana (c. 554 CE):

• Ishanavarmana is considered the true founder of Maukhari supremacy.

• He took the title ‘Maharajadhiraja,’ as noted in the Asirgarh copper plate inscription.

• Ishanavarmana expanded the Maukhari kingdom into regions like Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Gauda.

• He faced resistance from the later Guptas and engaged in a prolonged conflict with them.

• Ishanavarmana suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of Kumaragupta of the later Gupta dynasty.

• He successfully resisted the Hunas and is believed to have defeated them, possibly as a vassal of Baladitya of the imperial Gupta family. Harsha’s inscription further mentions that Ishanavarmana also defeated the Sulikas.

• Ishanavarmana is remembered as a learned, just ruler, a brave warrior, and a patron of education, as evidenced by seals and coins.

Sarvavarmana (c. 560−585 CE):

• He maintained control over Magadha and kept the later Guptas under subordination.

• He is victorious over Damodargupta according to the Asirgadh Inscription.

• He established Nimar as a ‘Maukhari outpost in the Deccan.’

• During his time, the later Guptas did not pose a significant threat.

Avanti Varmana (c. 585−600 CE):

• Succeeded Sarvavarmana.

• Also took the title of Maharajadhiraja.

• Expanded the kingdom’s boundaries by relocating the capital to Kannauj.

• Marked the peak of the Maukhari empire under his rule.

Grahavarmana (c. 600 CE):

• Succeeded Avanti Varmana.

• Married to Rajyashri, the daughter of Prabhakar Vardhana of the Pushyabhuti family of Thanesara.

• Killed by Deva Gupta of the later Gupta lineage.

The Hunas

The Hunas:

The nomadic Mongol tribes, known as the Huns, are first mentioned in the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata as Malechhas, a term that included several tribes such as the Sakas, Yavanas, Savaras, Paundras, Kiratas, Khasas, Chivukas, Pulindas, and Chinas.

• Polyandry, the practice of having multiple husbands and one wife, was common among the Huns.

• The Huns attacked the Kushan Kingdom of Kabul and subsequently entered India. Around 500 A.D., under the leadership of a chieftain named Ramanila, the Huns conquered Gandhara.

Toramana

• The Huna power in Punjab consolidated under Toramana.

• He is mentioned in Kura Inscription as Rajadhiraja Maharaja Toramana Shahi Jaula. He has also been referred to as Rajtarangini.

• The silver coins of Toramana are very similar to the Gupta Kings.

• It is thought that Toramana invaded the Gupta Empire with the help of a scion of the Gupta family called Harigupta.

Moreover, the feudal structure of the administration was a facilitating factor for Huna’s conquest.

Toramana acquired the Malwa region in 510 A.D. and the local prince Bhanugupta was unable to check him.

Mihirkula

• Mihirkula, the son of Toramana, succeeded him to the throne. The name Mihirkula means "one from the Sun Clan." He ascended to power in 510 A.D. and was strongly anti-Buddhist. He destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and treated Buddhists with cruelty. His reign extended as far as Gwalior.

• Mihirkula's contemporary Gupta ruler was Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II, a devout Buddhist. Narsimhgupta fought against Mihirkula, with the support of Yasodharman of Malwa. Mihirkula was defeated and died shortly after, marking the end of the White Huns' presence in India.

• Despite political rivalries and conflicts between various states, Thaneswar, located north of Delhi between the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers, became an independent state under the Pushyabhutis. It rose to prominence under the leadership of Harsha, who ruled from 606 to 647 A.D., overseeing a kingdom as vast as the Gupta.