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BENGAL BEFORE THE BRITISH CONQUEST
In the process of imperialist expansion, Bengal became since the 17th century, the hunting ground of the Dutch, the French and the English companies.
It was mainly the rich resources and good prospects of trade in Bengal which attracted the various foreign companies.
In the 18th century exports from Bengal to Europe consisted of raw products, such as, saltpetre, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar, etc. and silk, cotton textiles, handicrafts etc.
Bengal goods comprised nearly 60 per cent of British imports from Asia in the early 18th century. Commercial potential of Bengal was naturally the chief cause of the interest of the English in this province.
Regular contact of the English with Bengal started in the 1630s. First English company in the east was set up at Balasore in Orissa in 1633, then at Hugli, Qasimbazar, Patna and Dacca.
By 1690s the acquisition of the Zamindari rights of the three villages of Sutanuti, Calcutta and Govindpur and the foundation of Calcutta by the Company, completed this process of English commercial settlement in Bengal.
Since the 17th century the English East India Company was allowed to trade freely in Bengal, in return the Company had to pay annually Rs.3,000 (£350) to the Mughal emperor.
In 1700, Murshid Quli Khan became the Dewan of Bengal and ruled till his death in 1727. He was not in favour of the special privileges enjoyed by the Company because of the loss that resulted to the treasury. So, the tussle between the English commercial interest and the local government in Bengal was already marked before the mid-18th century.
Almost all the governors of Bengal strongly resented the special privileges enjoyed by the English company as it meant a huge loss to the provincial exchequer. So, the friction between the English commercial interests and the Bengal government became the chief cause for conflict between the two.
During a short period between 1757 and 1765, the power gradually got transferred from the Nawabs of Bengal to the British with the latter defeating the former.
Alivardi Khan and the English
In 1741, Alivardi Khan, the Deputy Governor of Bihar, killed the Nawab of Bengal Sarfaraz Khan in a battle and certified his own position as the new Subahdar of Bengal by paying a large sum of money to the Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah.
Alivardi Khan ruled for 15 years, during which he fought off the Marathas. The English, too, took the advantage of the Maratha incursions in Bengal, by obtaining a permission from the nawab to dig a ditch and throw up an entrenchment around their settlement of Fort William.
Later, Alivardi Khan’s apprehensions were drawn to the Carnatic region, where the European companies had usurped all power; on realising this, he was urged to expel the Europeans from Bengal. But he died in April 1756 and was succeeded by his grandson, Siraj-ud-daula, the son of Alivardi’s youngest daughter.
THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF BENGAL, 1757-65
The history of Bengal from 1757 to 1765 is the history of gradual transfer of power from the Nawabs to the British. During this short period of eight years three nawabs, Siraj-ud-daula, Mir Jafar and Mir Qasim ruled over Bengal. But they failed to uphold the sovereignty of the Nawab and ultimately the reign of control passed into the hands of the British.
Siraj-ud-daula and the British
Siraj-ud-daula succeeded Alivardi Khan as Nawab of Bengal in 1756. The succession of Siraj was opposed by his aunt Ghasiti Begum and his cousin Shaukat Jang who was the governor of Purnea.
There was a dominant group in the Nawab’s court comprising Jagat Seth, Omichand, Raj Ballabh, Rai Durlabh, Mir Jafar and others who were also opposed to Siraj.
Besides this internal dissension within the Nawab’s court, another serious threat to Nawab’s position was the growing commercial activity of the English Company.
THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY
Prelude to the Battle
The conflict between the Nawab and the English Company over trade privileges was nothing new. But during Siraj-ud daula’s reign certain other factors further strained the relations between the two. They are:
The fortification around Calcutta by the English Company without the permission of the Nawab, challenging the sovereignty of the Nawab.
The misuse of the Company’s trade privilege by its officials for their private trade that adversely affected the nawab’s finances.
The English Company at Calcutta had given shelter to Krishna Das, son of Raj Ballabh, who had fled with immense treasures against the Nawab’s will.
The Company, on its part, suspected that Siraj would drastically reduce its trade privileges in collusion with the French in Bengal. Thus, when Siraj attacked and seized the English fort at Calcutta, it brought their hostility into the open.
The much propagated “Black Hole Tragedy” in which Siraj-ud-daula is believed to have imprisoned 146 English persons who were lodged in a very tiny room due to which 123 of them died of suffocation.
The Battle
The arrival of a strong force under the command of Robert Clive at Calcutta from Madras strengthened the English position in Bengal.
Clive forged a secret alliance with the traitors of the nawab—Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, Jagat Seth (an influential banker of Bengal) and Omichand.
Under the deal, Mir Jafar was to be made the nawab who in turn would reward the Company for its services. The secret alliance of the Company with the conspirators further strengthened the English position.
English victory in the Battle of Plassey, (June 23, 1757) was decided before the battle was fought. It was not the superiority of the military power but the conspiracy of the Nawab’s officials that helped the English in winning the battle.
Due to the conspiracy of the nawab’s officials, the 50,000-strong force of Siraj was defeated by a handful of Clive’s forces. Siraj-ud-daula was captured and murdered by the order of Mir Jafar’s son, Miran.
The Battle of Plassey was placed at the disposal of the English vast resources of Bengal. After Plassey, the English virtually monopolised the trade and commerce of Bengal.
Significance of Battle of Plassey
The Battle of Plassey was politically significant because it established the British Empire in India, which is rightfully considered to be the beginning of British dominance in that country.
The conflict solidified English military dominance in Bengal. The French, their principal adversaries, were driven out.
Their status rose significantly, and they were granted territory to maintain a well-trained military force.
Although Clive gained ultimate authority over affairs and the new nawab, Mir Jafar, was totally dependent on his support to hold onto his newly obtained position, there was no discernible change in the structure of governance. The English were acknowledged as having dominion over Calcutta.
Mir Jafar and the British
Mir Jafar was crowned Nawab of Bengal as a result of this triumph. He provided the English with substantial sums of money in addition to the Zamindari of 24 parganas.
Immediately after his accession Mir Jafar faced some serious internal problems. They were: ➤ Some of the Zamindars like Raja Ram Sinha of Midnapore, Hizir Ali Khan of Purnea refused to accept him as their ruler.
➤ Mir Jafar’s soldiers who were not getting salary regularly were in a rebellious mood. ➤ He had doubts about the loyalty of some of his officials, especially of Rai Durlabh. He believed that Rai Durlabh had instigated the rebellion of Zamindar against him. But Rai Durlabh was under the shelter of Clive so he could not touch him. ➤ There was an attempt by the Mughal Emperor’s son who later on became Shah Alam to capture the throne of Bengal. ➤ The financial position of the Nawab was also weak, mainly because of the demands of the Company and mismanagement of resources. All these made Mir Jafar more dependent on the English Company. But the Company was unhappy with the Nawab for some reasons. ➤ The English Company was under the impression that Mir Jafar, in collaboration with the Dutch company, was trying to curb the growing influence of the English in Bengal. ➤ Mir Jafar also failed to respond to the ever-increasing demands of the English.
The death of Miran, son of Mir Jafar, again created a conflict over the question of succession. The fight was between Miran’s son and Mir Qasim, the son in-law of Mir Jafar.
Vansittart who came as Governor of Calcutta took the side of Mir Qasim. Mir Qasim in a secret agreement with Vansittart agreed to pay the necessary funds to the Company if they support his claim to the Nawabship of Bengal.
Mir Jafar had already lost the confidence of the English. The rebellion of Mir Jafar’s army for their due salary made it easier for the British to force Mir Jafar to step down.
Mir Qasim and the British
Mir Qasim’s accession to the throne of Bengal followed the same way, the way through which Mir Jafar had come to power. Like his predecessor, Mir Qasim also had to pay large amounts of money to the English. After his assumption of power, the two most important things that Mir Qasim did were: ➤ Shifting the capital from Murshidabad to Munger in Bihar in order to keep a safe distance from the Company at Calcutta, and ➤ Reorganizing the bureaucracy by the men of his own choice and remodelling the army to enhance its skill and efficiency.
Vansittart, the new Governor of Calcutta, agreed to support Mir Qasim’s claim after a treaty between Mir Qasim and the Company was signed in 1760. Important features of the treaty were as follows: ➤ Mir Qasim agreed to cede to the Company the districts of Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong. ➤ The Company would get half of the share in chunam trade of Sylhet. ➤ Mir Qasim agreed to pay off the outstanding dues to the Company. ➤ Mir Qasim promised to pay a sum of rupees five lakh towards financing the Company’s war efforts in southern India. ➤ It was agreed that Mir Qasim’s enemies were the Company’s enemies, and his friends, the Company’s friends. ➤ It was agreed that tenants of the nawab’s territory would not be allowed to settle in the lands of the Company, and vice-versa.
THE BATTLE OF BUXAR
Prelude to Battle
The first few months of Mir Qasim’s reign went very well. But gradually the relationship with the British became embittered. Reasons for this were:
Ram Narayan, the Deputy governor of Bihar, was not responding to the repeated requests by Nawab to submit his accounts. But Ram Narayan was supported by the English officials of Patna who never concealed their anti-nawab feelings.
The misuse of the Company’s Dastak or trade permit by Company officials for their private trade generated tension between the British and the Nawab.
The misuse of the dastak meant the loss of tax revenue to the nawab. It also made the local merchants face unequal competition with the Company merchants.
By an imperial farman, the English company had obtained the right to trade in Bengal without paying transit dues or tolls. However, the servants of the Company also claimed the same privileges for their private trade.
The Company’s servants also sold dastak to Indian merchants for a commission. Besides, they used coercive methods to get goods at cheaper rates, which was against the spirit of the duty-free trade.
Mir Qasim decided to abolish the duties altogether, but the British protested against this and insisted upon having preferential treatment as against other traders.
The conflict over transit duties between the Nawab and
the British led to the outbreak of wars between the English and Mir Qasim in 1763, with the British securing victories at Katwa, Murshidabad, Giria, Sooty and Munger.
After his defeats, Mir Qasim fled to Awadh, where he formed an alliance with the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-daula, and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II, in an attempt to regain control of Bengal from the British.
The Battle
On October 22, 1764, the combined forces of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Awadh, and Shah Alam II were defeated by the British under Major Hector Munro at the Battle of Buxar, marking a significant yet brief campaign against Mir Qasim.
The significance of this battle was that it resulted in the defeat of both the Nawab of Bengal and the Mughal Emperor by the British forces.
This victory solidified the British as a dominant power in northern India and positioned them as strong contenders for control over the entire subcontinent.
Following the defeat, Mir Jafar, who had been appointed Nawab of Bengal in 1763 amid tensions with Mir Qasim, agreed to cede the districts of Midnapore, Burdwan, and Chittagong to the British for the support of their military.
The British were granted the right to trade duty-free in Bengal, with the exception of a two percent duty on salt.
Following the death of Mir Jafar, his young son, Najim-ud-daula, was made the Nawab. However, the actual power in governance was held by the naib-subahdar, who could be appointed or removed by the British.
The Treaty of Allahabad 1765
In August 1765, Robert Clive signed two significant treaties in Allahabad: one with Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor, and another with the Nawab of Awadh.
Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula agreed to:
Cede Allahabad and Kara to Emperor Shah Alam II.
Pay a war indemnity of Rs 50 lakh to the British Company.
Restore Balwant Singh, the Zamindar of Banaras, and grant him full control of his estate.
Shah Alam II agreed to:
Live in Allahabad, which the Nawab of Awadh will cede to him under the protection of the British Company.
Issue a farman granting the East India Company the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in exchange for an annual payment of Rs 26 lakh.
A payment of Rs 53 lakh to the Company in exchange for the provinces' nizamat (police, military defense, and justice administration) services. Clive refrained from annexing Awadh because doing so would have required the Company to defend a large land frontier against potential Afghan and Maratha invasions. The treaty strengthened the Nawab’s alliance with the Company, transforming Awadh into a buffer state. Similarly, Clive's dealings with Shah Alam II were based on practical needs. The emperor became a convenient "rubber stamp" for the Company, and his farman legitimized the Company’s political gains in Bengal. Meanwhile, Mir Qasim, the deposed Nawab of Bengal, lived the remainder of his life in extreme hardship as a homeless wanderer, eventually passing away in June 1777.
DUAL SYSTEM
The early mechanism of the establishment of Company rule in Bengal followed the administrative system under the Mughals.
The Mughal provincial administration had two main heads - nizamat and diwani. Broadly speaking, nizamat meant administration of law and order and criminal justice; while diwani was revenue administration and civil justice.
As the Diwan, the Company directly collected its revenue, while through the right to nominate the Deputy Subehdar, it controlled the nizamat or the Police or Judicial powers.
The provincial Subadar was in charge of nizamat (he was also called nazim) and the diwan was in charge of revenue administration.
After the treaty of Allahabad, the English East India Company was made the Diwan of Bengal but Lord Clive chooses not to take over the administration of Bengal directly; this responsibility was left to the Nawab’s Naib Diwan and Naib Nazim Muhammad Raza Khan.
As naib nazim he was to represent the nawab and as naib diwan he was to represent the Company. Thus, the Nawab had to handle the entire responsibility for the civil and criminal justice administration. However, he had to function through Muhammad Raza Khan who was placed under the superintendence, direction and control of the British Company.
This arrangement is known as ‘Dual or Double Government’. Under this system the British had power and resources without responsibility while the Nawab had the responsibility of the administration without power to discharge it. Thus, the Nawab had to take all responsibility for bad governance. The revenue remained the sole earning of the Company in lieu of a meagre annual payment to the Mughal emperor.
Warren Hastings removed this system in 1772.