Naxalite Movement and Maoist Insurgency
Naxalite Movement and Maoist Insurgency
The first non-Congress United Front (UF) government came to power in West Bengal in March 1967, comprising the CPI, CPM and Bangla Congress (a breakaway faction of the Congress). This new government decided to expedite the implementation of land reforms.
The then land revenue minister Hare Krishna Konar announced a programme of quick distribution of surplus land among the landless and an end to the eviction of sharecroppers. But this process was slow and time- consuming because the issue of the distribution of surplus land went to the court and was under litigation.
Therefore, the local leader Charu Majumdar from the Naxalbari area of the Darjeeling district argued that this democratic process of distribution of land and democracy in India is sham and decided to adopt a strategy of protracted guerrilla warfare in order to lead a revolution.
This Naxalite Movement under Majumdar’s leadership used force to snatch land from the rich landowners and to distribute it among the poor and the landless. Its supporters advocated the use of violent means to achieve their political goals.
Initially the efforts of reconciliation such as sending of a cabinet mission by the UF government failed and negotiated solution was brushed aside by Charu Mazumdar.
Eventually the policy of repression by the government had its effect and by July 1967 the peasant movement was over with most of its leaders in jail.
Despite the efforts of subsequent governments to control the Naxal menace, similar movements took root in other areas such as Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh. Here ‘revolutionaries’ inspired by Mao Zedong led a group of tribal into a suicidal confrontation with the state. As in Naxalbari here, dissident CPM leaders shifted to a line of armed struggle and guerrilla warfare.
Beginning in November 1967 the movement reached an intense phase between November 1968 to February 1969. With the formation of the Communist Party Marxist- Leninist (ML) in April 1969, a new party of extreme left activists, a turn from mass line to guerrilla action and individual annihilation took place. In the face of police action, the movement faded.
By 1971 feeble attempts were made by some Maoist factions to revive the movement but by 1975 these attempts fizzled out. Even after this date, groups of Maoists existed in remote pockets of the country, often backward and poor regions inhabited by tribal or very poor low-caste cultivators and agricultural labourers in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
Many of the splintered groups joined hands to form the unified CPI (Maoist) in the early 2000s, constituting a serious internal security threat in some regions of India.
Emergency
Emergency
Internal Emergency declared in 1975, is widely considered as the greatest political crisis India faced since independence.
Background to the emergency
Economic Issues:
A combination of recession, growing unemployment, rampant inflation and scarcity of food grains created a serious economic crisis.
India’s support for the liberation of Bangladesh materially had serious repercussions for India as the exchange reserves were drained and more resources were diverted to defence.
Consecutive monsoon failures in 1972 & 73 affected India’s food grains availability and fuelled price rise.
Large-scale unemployment and economic recession led to industrial unrest and a wave of strikes in different parts of the country culminated in the All-India railway strike in May 1974.
Tussle with Judiciary
The union government, under the leadership of Mrs Indira Gandhi, amended the constitution to the effect that gave parliament the power to abridge fundamental rights in case of legislation giving effect to DPSPs. Later, In Kesavananda Bharti Case (1973), the Supreme Court ruled that there are some basic features of the Constitution, which can’t be amended.
Furious with the S.C. judgement in Kesavanda Case, the Union Government changed the long-term precedence of appointing the senior-most judge in S.C. as Chief Justice. In 1973, the government set aside the seniority of three judges and appointed Justice A.N. Ray as Chief Justice of India.
The Allahabad High Court, while hearing the plea of socialist leader Raj Narain on the validity of the election of Indira Gandhi to Lok Sabha, ruled in his favour and set aside her victory, and ruled her elections invalid on the grounds of abuse of power. However, the Supreme Court later granted a partial stay on this order and allowed Mrs Gandhi to remain MP but observed that she couldn’t participate in the proceedings of the court.
Gujarat and Bihar Unrest
In January 1974, students in Gujarat protested against rising prices, unemployment and corruption.
An assembly election was held in Gujarat in June 1975 and the Congress was defeated.
A similar agitation was started by the students in Bihar in March 1974.
After a point, Jayprakash Narayan took the leadership of the movement and gave a call for a ‘Total Revolution’.
Thus, the student movement assumed a political character.
Jai Prakash (jp) Movement Total Revolution
Jai Prakash (JP) movement/total revolution
The JP movement was one of the significant movements in India’s political life after independence. Jayprakash Narayan drew on the enormous discontent prevalent in the country to force a movement.
Jay Prakash Narayan, popularly known as JP or ‘Loknayak’ was an eminent personality in India’s Freedom Movement.
JP launched the ‘Bihar Movement’, started by the students in Bihar in 1974, where he provided perfect leadership to these students. This agitation was inspired by the student protest in Gujarat.
On 5th June 1974, addressing a mammoth gathering of 5 lakh people in Gandhi Maidan at Patna, he launched the revolutionary programme called Total Revolution (Sampoorna Kranti) against immense corruption, economic crisis and inflation.
During the JP Movement, people set up parallel governments all over the state, didn’t pay the taxes etc.
The JP Movement attracted wide support from students, middle classes, traders, and a section of the intelligentsia.
The JP Movement also got the backing of nearly all the non-left political parties. The movement attracted wide support from students, middle classes, traders, and a section of the intelligentsia.
The JP movement quickly spread to other parts of the country – this was mainly because it drew upon the widely held feeling that only a shift in power and a new beginning to India’s political life could save India’s democracy.
However, by the end of 1974, The JP Movements’ fervour got down because of the absence of organizational structures in the movement. Most of his student followers resumed their classes. The movement had failed to attract the rural and urban poor, both in Gujarat and Bihar.
The leadership of JP gave credence to the agitation against the government of the day when the emergency was imposed and even after that it became a key factor in galvanising the opposition parties in forming a joint front, culminating in the formation of the Janata Party.
Declaration of emergency
Following the Allahabad High Court ruling and the partial stay from the Supreme Court, political parties, led by Jayaprakash Narayan, demanded Indira Gandhi’s resignation on moral grounds.
Indira Gandhi, however, resisted these demands and, in response, declared a state of emergency on June 26, 1975, citing the threat of internal disturbances and invoking Article 352 of the Constitution.
Once the emergency was declared, the federal distribution of powers was suspended, consolidating authority in the Union government. Fundamental rights were also curtailed, with press censorship and the arrest of opposition leaders becoming common during this period.
Impact of Emergency
Impact of Emergency
The government imposed strict press censorship, requiring prior approval for publication of any content.
Protests, strikes, and public demonstrations were prohibited.
The fundamental right to seek judicial remedy for the restoration of rights was suspended (Article 359).
Religious and cultural groups like the RSS and Jamaat- e-Islami were banned due to concerns over social and communal disturbances.
The provision for preventive detention was misused to arrest political activists, with detainees unable to challenge their arrest since constitutional remedies were suspended.
In protest against the suspension of democracy, several award recipients, including Padma Shri winners, returned their honours.
The Emergency saw widespread human rights violations, including torture, custodial deaths, forced relocations, and a controversial sterilization campaign aimed at controlling population growth.
Public outrage over the forced sterilization led to riots across the country, prompting Indira Gandhi to halt the campaign in 1977.
Individuals without official authority misused administrative power, interfering with government operations.
During the Emergency, civil liberties were curtailed. Sanjay Gandhi, Indira’s son, introduced a five-point program that focused on family planning, afforestation, dowry abolition, slum clearance, and illiteracy removal
Lessons From Emergency
Lessons from Emergency
The first lesson is that it is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India.
Secondly, the ambiguities regarding the emergency provisions were rectified during the Janata Government as it was made clear in the constitution that an “Internal Emergency” can be proclaimed only on the grounds of “armed rebellion” and it is now necessary for the council of Minister to advice President in writing to proclaim an emergency.
Thirdly, the emergency made everyone aware of the
value of civil liberties.
Due to the abuse of power during the period of emergency, it was realised that such measures subvert the rule of law and democratic institutions. Therefore, post-emergency, there emerged a political consensus that ensured that such a declaration of emergency should not happen again.
The end of the emergency was marked by the announcement of Mrs Gandhi in January 1977 that elections to the Lok Sabha would be held in March. Results of the elections made it clear that the electorate had not taken a kind view of the developments during the emergency and as a result, the Congress party was thoroughly defeated.
The lifting of the emergency and the free elections that followed were a defining moment in India’s post- independence history. This chapter in Indian history revealed the underlying attachment of Indian people to democratic values evolved over the years through the experience of the freedom struggle as well as the conduct of free elections in independent India.
Politics After An Emergency
Politics after an emergency
In January 1977, after eighteen months of emergency, the government decided to hold elections. Accordingly, all the leaders and activists were released from jail. Elections were held in March 1977.
The major opposition parties had already been coming closer in the pre-Emergency period. Now they came together on the eve of the elections and formed a new party, known as the Janata Party. The new party accepted the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan. Some leaders of Congress who were opposed to the Emergency also joined this new party.
Some other Congress leaders also came out and formed a separate party under the leadership of Jagjivan Ram. This party named Congress for Democracy, later merged with the Janata Party.
The Janata Party made this election into a referendum on the Emergency. Its campaign was focused on the non-democratic character of the rule and on the various excesses that took place during this period.
For the first time since Independence, the Congress party was defeated in the Lok Sabha elections. The Congress could win only 154 seats in the Lok Sabha. The Janata Party and its allies won 330 out of the 542 seats in the Lok Sabha.
The opposition fought the election on the slogan of ‘save democracy’. The people’s verdict was decisively against the Emergency. The lesson was clear and has been reiterated in many state-level elections thereafter – governments that are perceived to be anti-democratic are severely punished by the voters.
The opposition to Emergency could keep the Janata Party together only for a while. Its critics felt that the Janata Party lacked direction, leadership, and a common programme. The Janata Party government could not bring about a fundamental change in policies from those pursued by the Congress.
The Janata Party split and the government, which was led by Morarji Desai, lost its majority in less than 18 months. Another government headed by Charan Singh was formed on the assurance of the support of the Congress party. But the Congress party later decided to withdraw its support with the result that the Charan Singh government could remain in power for just about four months.
Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in January 1980 in which the Janata Party suffered a comprehensive defeat, especially in north India where it had swept the polls in 1977. Congress party led by Indira Gandhi nearly repeated its great victory in 1971.
The experience of 1977-79 taught another lesson in democratic politics: governments that are seen to be unstable and quarrelsome are severely punished by the voters.
Communalism
COMMUNALISM
The problem of communalism begins when religion is seen as the basis of national unity and identity. The problem becomes sharper when religion is expressed in exclusive and partisan terms when one follower of a particular religion is pitted against another.
Communal politics is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of the social community. The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs which routinely involve religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the superiority of one’s religion over other religions.
Political mobilization on religious lines is another frequent form of communalism, this involves the use of sacred symbols, a religious leader’s emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion together against the other religious community. Sometimes communalism takes its ugly form of communal violence, riots, massacre etc.
Communalism was and continues to be one of the major challenges to democracy in our country. The founding fathers of the nations wanted a secular India, hence they strictly refrained from declaring India’s official religion, and provided equal freedom to all the followers of different religions. In spite of the equal freedom for everyone in the country and the secular character of the country, India witnessed lots of communal riots which were immensely brutal and horrendous.
Some infamous incidents of communal politics
Ayodhya Dispute:
A dispute had been going on for many decades over the mosque known as Babri Masjid at Ayodhya, built by Mir Baqi Tashqandi, Mughal Emperor Babur’s General.
Some Hindus believe that it was built after demolishing a temple of Lord Rama which is believed to be his birthplace.
The dispute reached the court and in the late 1940’s the mosque was locked up as the matter was with the court. In February 1986, the Faizabad district court ordered that Babri Masjid premises be unlocked so that Hindus could offer prayers at the statue which they considered as a temple.
Soon with the unlocking of doors, mobilisation on communal lines began on both sides. Gradually the local issue became a national issue and increased the communal tensions.
In December, 1992 many Karsevaks of Hindu Right-Wing factions like VHP, Bajrang Dal etc. arrived at Ayodhya in the name of Karsevak’s voluntary service by devotees to build the Ram temple.
Meanwhile, the Apex Court ordered that the State government must ensure that the disputed site won’t be endangered. However, thousands of people arrived there
and demolished the Babri Masjid and it was followed by communal riots in the country at large scale, in which lots of people died.
The union government dismissed the state government and appointed Librehan Commission to investigate the circumstances leading to the demolition of the mosque.
Since then, this issue was pending in the apex court and finally, Supreme Court came out with its judgement on 9th November, 2019.
The five-judge Supreme Court bench led by Chief Justice Ranjan Gogoi read out a unanimous judgment and ruled in favour of the Ram Janmabhoomi and said there will be Ram Mandir at the disputed site and Muslims will be given an alternate 5-acre land for their mosque.
Anti-Sikh Riots:
Under the orders of the Indira Gandhi government, in June 1984 the Indian Army launched its offensive against Sikh militants at the Golden Temple in Amritsar under the code name “Operation Blue Star”. The army was successful in driving out the militants from the Sikh’s sacred place, but this event angered the Sikh People and their sentiments got hurt.
To avenge this action the bodyguards of Mrs. Gandhi killed her at her own house. Later the angry Congress workers and supporters allegedly began their brutal actions of killing innocent Sikh People in the country; Delhi was the most affected area during the anti-Sikh riots.
Union Government appointed so many commissions to enquire about the guilty people and to find out their masterminds, but nothing concrete came out of such commissions. The kiths and kins of the victims of the Anti-Sikh riots are still waiting to get justice after 30 years of the incident.
Gujarat riots (2002):
In the months of February and March 2002, Gujarat witnessed one of the ugliest communal riots in its history. The spark of the riots happened at Godhra Station, where a bogey of a train that was returning from Ayodhya with Karsevaks was set on fire. Suspecting it to be a Muslim conspiracy, large-scale violence against Muslims began in many parts of Gujarat.
The National Human Right Commission criticized the Gujarat Govt’s role in failing to control violence, providing relief to the victims and prosecuting the perpetrators of this violence. Gujarat riots show that the governmental machinery also becomes susceptible to sectarian passions.
Assam Violence 2012:
Violence broke out due to ongoing tensions between the Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims. These tensions stemmed from competition for resources, land, and political influence.
The Muzaffarnagar Riots of 2013:
A series of violent communal riots in Uttar Pradesh resulted in the deaths of over 60 people and the displacement of over 50,000 people.
The Delhi Riots of 2020:
A major communal violence broke out in New Delhi, in February 2020. The premise of the New Delhi 2020 riots is based on growing animosity and destabilisation of communal harmony in the background of the Citizenship (Amendment) Act and the National Register of Citizens (NRC). The violence resulted in the deaths of over 50 people and injuries to hundreds more, as well as the displacement of thousands of people.
Points To Remember
• Emergency: Internal Emergency declared in 1975, is widely considered as the greatest political crisis India faced since independence.
• Background to the emergency:
• Economic Issues: consequent monsoon failure, industrial unrest, recession, unemployment.
• Tussle with Judiciary: tussle over Kesavananda Bharti case 1973, also, Allahabad high court ruled in favour of socialist leader Raj Narain.
• Gujarat and Bihar Unrest: students in Gujarat and Bihar protested against rising prices, unemployment and corruption.
• Jai Prakash (JP) movement/total revolution:
• JP launched the ‘Bihar Movement’, and provided perfect leadership to the students.
• He launched the revolutionary programme called Total Revolution (Sampoorna Kranti) against immense corruption, economic crisis and inflation.
• By the end of 1974, The JP Movements’ fervour got down.
• The government declared a state of emergency on June 26, 1975 invoking Article 352 of the constitution.
• Impact of Emergency:
• Press censorship
• Article 359 got suspended
• Protests, strikes and agitation were not allowed.
• Provision of preventive detention.
• Compulsory sterilization.
• Civil liberties were suspended.
• Politics after Emergency
• Elections were held in March 1977.
• Newer parties like Janata party, congress for democracy were formed.
• Congress was defeated for the first time.
• Janata party split, one led by Morarji Desai and the other by Charan Singh.
• Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in January 1980.
• Naxalite Movement and Maoist Insurgency
• An uprising in 1967 under the leadership of Charu Majumdar, from the Naxalbari area of the Darjeeling district.
• He decided to adopt a strategy of protracted guerrilla warfare in order to lead a revolution.
Communalism: Communalism refers to the belief in the primacy of one’s own religious community over others, often leading to conflict and violence between different religious groups.
• Some infamous incidents of communal politics:
• Ayodhya Dispute
• Anti-Sikh Riots 1984: Operation Bluestar.
• Gujarat riots (2002)
• Assam Violence 2012
• The Muzaffarnagar riots of 2013
• The Delhi riots of 2020