Diversity and Classification of Bhakti Traditions

Diversity and Classification of Bhakti Traditions

• Diverse Bhakti Traditions: Historians categorize bhakti into saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes) forms. Saguna bhakti centred on specific deities like Shiva, Vishnu, or goddesses in anthropomorphic forms, while nirguna bhakti worshipped an abstract form of God.

• Alvars and Nayanars: Early bhakti movements led by Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) in the sixth century involved travel, hymn singing, identification of sacred shrines, and temple construction, fostering pilgrimage centres.

Social Reforms and Literary Significance

• Social Reform Initiatives: These movements potentially initiated protests against the caste system and Brahmanical dominance, drawing followers from diverse social backgrounds.

• Literary Impact: The compositions of these poet-saints, like the Nalayira Divyaprabandham by the Alvars, held significant importance, even likened to the Vedas. Women like Andal and Karaikkal Ammaiyar challenged patriarchal norms through their compositions.

State Patronage and Religious Dynamics

• State Support: Evidence suggests intermittent support from rulers like Pallavas, Pandyas, and Chola for bhakti traditions, competing with Buddhism and Jainism for royal favour.

• Royal Influence: Chola rulers supported bhakti movements to assert their power and status, conducting various activities such as land grants, temple construction, and patronage of religious texts and sculptures, elevating their influence among the Vellala peasant community.

Indian Philosophy and Bhakti Influences

• Shankara’s Influence: Shankara’s Advaita philosophy, emphasizing the oneness of the individual soul and the formless Brahman, influenced the bhakti tradition.

• Ramanuja’s Teachings: Ramanuja, influenced by Alvars, preached intense devotion to Vishnu for salvation, advocating Vishishtadvaita, where the soul remains distinct even when united with the Supreme God.

Cultural Assimilation and Bhakti Expansion

• Incorporation of Tamil Bhakti Ideas: Tamil Bhaktas’ ideas, especially in Vaishnavism, were integrated into the Bhagavata Purana within the Sanskritic tradition.

• Bhakti Development in Maharashtra: Bhakti traditions also flourished in Maharashtra in the thirteenth century, contributing to the broader evolution of these devotional movements

Virashaiva Movement in Karnataka

• Basavanna and Virashaivas: Basavanna, a brahmana minister in the twelfth century, founded the Virashaiva movement in Karnataka. His followers, known as Virashaivas or Lingayats, worshipped Shiva as a linga and rejected ritualism and idol worship.

Equality and Opposition to Brahmanical Norms: The Virashaivas advocated equality among all humans, opposing Brahmanical caste and gender norms. They challenged caste, rituals, and advocated post-puberty marriages, remarriage of widows, and burial instead of cremation after death.

Saints of Maharashtra and Varkari Sect

• Vaishnav Saint Poets: Maharashtra witnessed the emergence of Vaishnav saint poets from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries. Notable figures like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram, along with women like Sakhubai and Chokhamela’s family, emphasized devotion to Vitthala (a form of Vishnu).

• Varkari Sect: This sect emphasized an annual pilgrimage to the Pandharpur temple and stressed the concept of a personal god residing in everyone’s hearts. They rejected rituals, displays of piety, and social distinctions based on birth. Humanist ideals emerged, emphasizing empathy for others’ pain.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis

• Ascetic Groups: Various ascetic groups like Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas, and Yogis criticized conventional religion and societal norms. They advocated renunciation and meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality for salvation.

• Emphasis on Intense Training: These groups emphasized intense mental and physical training through practices like yoga, breathing exercises, and meditation, particularly popular among lower castes in northern India.

Religious Dynamics in North India

• State Patronage and Emerging Leaders: Temples dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva existed in northern India, supported by rulers. New religious leaders like Nath, Jogis, and Siddhas emerged, questioning Vedic authority and expressing themselves in vernacular languages.

• Artisanal Groups’ Role: Many of these leaders hailed from artisanal communities, contributing to organized craft production, which saw increased demand due to emerging urban centres and trade with Central and West Asia