Since the dawn of civilization, India has had an extensive tradition of learning and education. Indian culture, wealth, faiths, philosophies, art, architecture, and educational practices are renowned around the world. The knowledge, customs, and practices that governed and inspired humanity were thought to have come from the ancient educational system.
Traditional Indian educational policy has a strong connection to religion. Two distinct educational systems have emerged throughout time:
• Vedic which is further split into post-Vedic and/or Brahminic
• Buddhist
The widely practised Vedic tradition adhered to the standards outlined in the Vedas and Smritis, which served as the Hindu religion’s official formulation of the rules governing civil life.
The Buddhist educational philosophy made up the second strand. In addition, there were areas of the Indian subcontinent where Jainism was dominant and its Sastras served as the standard.
Universities were thriving and Higher education in the fields of law, medicine, astronomy, and the arts was particularly well-known at Taxila, a renowned centre of learning. In the seventh century AD, Chinese academics I-tsing and Xuanzang travelled to Nalanda. Scholars from several nations were drawn to it.
The Jataka Tales, which have been related by a number of foreign visitors, such as Xuanzang and I-tsing, as well as other sources, have shown the king’s strong commitment in advancing education. Following Independence, the nation’s founders made a concerted effort to make the educational system universal and launched a number of projects grounded in the values of fairness and equality. It was decided on a national education policy. The Right to Education Act of 2009 was created when the Right to Education was declared a basic right.
Ancient Indian Education
The Vedas, Upanishads, and Dharma sutras comprised the bulk of the ancient educational system. Ithihasa, Anviksiki, Mimasa, Shilpashastra, and Arthashastra were a few of the significant sources that were considered to be significant. Some physical education activities include archery and physical activities. In ancient India, the Gurukula system was crucial to the education system.
In ancient India, the method and sources of education were quite intriguing. Education places equal value on a person’s full development, including their physical, mental, and total well-being. The student and the gurus continually collaborated as a team to ensure competence in all areas of learning. Later, debates or Shastrarth were organised in order to evaluate the students’ knowledge and learning.
In ancient India, both formal and informal ways of education existed. Indigenous education was imparted at home, in temples, pathshalas, tols, chatuspadis and gurukuls. There were people in homes, villages and temples who guided young children in imbibing pious ways of life. Temples were also the centres of learning and took interest in the promotion of knowledge of our ancient system. Students went to viharas and universities for higher knowledge. Teaching was largely oral and students remembered and meditated upon what was taught in the class.
Gurukuls, also known as ashrams, were the residential places of learning. Many of these were named after the sages. Situated in forests, in serene and peaceful surroundings, hundreds of students used to learn together in gurukuls. ‘Gurukula’ is a Sanskrit word which means guru means teacher and kula means house. The Upanishads do mention about the system of Gurukulam. Since the guru did not charge any fee from the students the gurukul was usually supported by public funds.
During that period, the gurus and their shishyas lived together helping each other in day-to-day life. The main objective was to have complete learning, leading a disciplined life and realising one’s inner potential. Students lived away from their homes for years together till they achieved their goals. The gurukul was also the place where the relationship of the guru and shishya strengthened with time. While pursuing their education in different disciplines like history, art of debate, law, medicine, etc., the emphasis was not only on the outer dimensions of the discipline but also on enriching inner dimensions of the personality.
Vedic And Post Vedic Education
The importance of education in society increased during the Vedic age. The major component of the educational system was the instillation of a sense of justice. Without the use of writing, culture was spread through educational practice.
The Vedic approach emphasised learning in three stages:
Shravana (hearing), Manana (internalisation), and Nididhyasana (meditation). Gurukuls, tolls, parishads, and sammelans were important educational institutions.
Typically, Sanskrit was used as the teaching language.
Before a person entered a school, an upanayana ceremony was held. It was noted as an instructor accepting a student. The practice of Swadhyaya, or self-study, was given more weight.
Education of Women in Vedic Period
Women held significant positions in the Vedic society. The Upanayana ceremony was also done for women. Women too had access to education during the early Vedic period. Among the prominent women Vedic scholars, we find references to Maitreyi, Viswambhara, Apala, Gargi and Lopamudra, to name a few.
Buddhist Education
The educational institutions established during Vedic period were not conducted as regularly and systematically as the Buddhist monastic institutions. Well established regular educational institutions were founded during the Buddhist period. Gradually big shrines and hermitages began to function as educational institutions. For the sake of spreading education, benevolent people were conferred upon such shrines by Hindu kings and subjects.
The main aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, an intelligent man, a wise, moral, talented, non-violent and secular man. Buddhist Education makes man judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitions.
The three main features of Buddhist education were -
Discipline, Meditation and Wisdom.
Pabbajja was an acquired ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbajja means going out’. According to this ceremony the student after being admitted to a monastery had to reject all his worldly and family relationships. A person belonging to any caste of the society could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any of his caste. After admission he had to change all his old clothes and all his old ways and manners of living.
For the Pabbajja ceremony the minimum age required was 8 years. After the Pabbajja ceremony, the education process continued for 12 years. When the student obtained twenty years of age, i.e., when he received education for 12 years, he had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony.
The Upasampada ceremony authorised a student for full- matured membership of the monastery. For the Pabbajja ceremony the individual had to get his head fully shaved and put on yellow clothes. In this way, he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation this individual would pray for admission to the monastery.
ANCIENT INDIAN UNIVERSITIES
Taxila/Takshila Mahavidyalaya
Taxila University
Takshila University was located on the eastern bank of the Indus River in Punjab, in Takshila (modern-day Pakistan). Takshila was formerly a Buddhist study center. Based on known evidence, it is considered to date back to at least the 5th century BC. According to some experts, Takshila was founded around the sixth century BC.
Takshila is extensively mentioned in the Jataka stories, dating back to the fifth century AD. It was a renowned center of learning for several decades before Christ, and scholars continued to gather there until the city was destroyed in the fifth century AD.
Taxila was a significant Brahmanical learning center. Its fame endured in Northern India even during the Buddhist period. There was no evidence of an educational center when Fa- Hien visited Taxila in the fifth century A.D. Because of its location on India’s northern and western frontiers, Taxila was vulnerable to foreign invasion. The Persians, Greeks, and Kushanas established empires in this region of the country at various times. The educational system must have evolved alongside the changing of empires.
Hindus and Buddhists regard it as a center of religious and historical sanctity, and it was the seat of Vedic learning where the emperor Chandragupta Maurya was led by Chanakya to learn. The institution is noteworthy in Buddhist history since it is thought to be the birthplace of the Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
It is said that Takshila is where Chanakya wrote his famous treatise, the Arthashastra. Takshila University remained a center of learning throughout the Maurya Empire and Greek rule (Indo-Greeks) in the third and second centuries BCE. It was a higher education facility that provided more than sixty different courses. Astronomy, Agriculture, Commerce, Politics, Vedanta, Vyakaran, Ayurveda, Surgery, eighteen Sippa trades, military education involving fighting and archery, and other disciplines were taught. More than 10,500 students attended this university, coming from all across Aryavart as well as Greece, Arabia, and China. Thousands of professors lived on this residential campus.
One of the well-known professors who is said to have
taught at Takshila University is Panini, a grammarian and well-known Sanskrit scholar. His greatest work, Ashtadhyayi (eight chapters), was written there. It was an intricate, rule-based grammar manual for Sanskrit that has been preserved in its entirety to this day.
It is also believed that Chanakya, the formidable Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya and the architect of the Mauryan Empire, taught at Takshila.
The founder of the Sautrantika school, Kumaralata, is said to have attracted students from as far away as China due to his extraordinary teaching abilities at Takshila university, according to Yuan Chwang, a 3rd-century Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller.
The University has also given some great students/scholars. Some of them are:
It is said that many of the Buddha’s contemporaries and close adherents, including Jivaka (royal physician of Rajagriha and Buddha) studied at Takshila.
Takshila is also said to have been the study and practice location for Charaka, the Indian “father of medicine” and one of the prominent Ayurvedic gurus.
Buddhist literature asserts that Chanakya took Chandragupta Maurya to Takshila for his schooling despite the fact that Chandragupta Maurya, the future ruler of the Mauryan Empire, was born in Patna (Bihar) in Magadha.
Taxila was characterised by Greek historians following the Macedonian conqueror as “wealthy, prosperous, and well- governed.” Taxila was located at the junction of South and Central Asia. When the huge old trade routes connecting these regions became obsolete, the city faded into obscurity and was eventually destroyed by the nomadic Hunas in the fifth century. The ruins of Taxila were discovered in the middle of the 19th century by the archaeologist Alexander Cunningham.
In 1980, UNESCO inscribed Takshila as a World Heritage Site.
Nalanda Mahavihara
Nalanda was a notable ancient Indian university and a historic center of higher learning in Bihar, India. It was established in 427 AD (5th century AD) and lasted until 1197 AD (12th century AD). It was one of the leading centres for higher learning in ancient India and was largely devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also taught fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics, the art of battle, grammar, logic, epistemology, Samkhya, Yoga-shastra, the vedas and science etc. Although it included all sects of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism was the principal subject of education, with other secular disciplines being studied. Mahayana monks such as Asnaga and Vasubandhu are said to have been among the main monks. It was founded by Shakraditya (Kumaragupta I) of the Gupta dynasty during the early 5th century. So, Nalanda University is over 2000
years old. It has been called as ‘one of the great universities in recorded history’. The writings (7th Century CE) of Chinese travellers Xuanzang and I-tsing provide by far the most detailed depiction of the Nalanda University in the ancient kingdom of Magadha. Students travelled long distances to learn from the University’s highly regarded faculty at one of the world’s most prestigious learning centres. Students from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia visited this university for educational purposes.
This was the site of Buddha and his followers’ stay (523 B.C
• 477 B.C) and had witnessed a number of talks on Buddhist beliefs. This is also where Mahavira, the Jain Tirthankara, first met Gosala. This was the site of debate for Nagarjuna and others in the early centuries of the Christian era. Because it was only a short distance from densely inhabited Rajagraha, Asoka constructed a temple and a Vihara here. During the era of Harshavardhana and the Pala monarchs, it rose to popularity. The monastery is said to have owned 200 villages as donations during the reign of Harshavardhana.
Nalanda Mahavihara
It features stupas, shrines, viharas, and significant stucco, stone, and metal artworks. Many of the vihara ruins here have an entrance with a bow marked floor (bow was the Guptas’ royal sign).
The University housed ten temples, meditation centres, and the world’s largest library called Dharma Gunj or Mountain of Truth, consisting of 3 buildings:
• Ratna Sagar
• Ratnodavi and
• Ratnayanjak
The names of Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, Dinnaga, Padmasambhava, Shantarakshita, Aryadeva, Rahulabhadra, Asanga, Jayadeva, Chandrakirti, Dharmapala, Gunamati, Sthiramati, Prabhamitra and Jinamitra are traditionally
associated with this famous university.
Until the 12th century 1193 AD, when Turkish ruler Qutbuddin Aibak’s general Bakhtiyar Khilji demolished Nalanda University, the university remained a hub of intellectual activity. The site was identified by Alexander Cunningham in 1861-62. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In 2010, the Government of India passed a resolution to revive the famous university, and a contemporary institute, Nalanda University, was established at Rajgir. It has been listed as an “Institute of National Importance” by the government.
Odantapuri University
Odantapuri University was one of the main centres of learning in ancient India. It was mainly a Buddhist Mahavihara, founded by Pala king Gopala during the 7th century CE. It was located in the Magadha region of Bihar.
Students from all across the country came to study at this University. However, this University failed to attain fame like Nalanda or Vikramshila Universities.
It has been claimed that this University accommodated
around 12,000 students. Various subjects were taught at this University that included Vedic scriptures and even Buddhism. The Khiljis destroyed this Buddhist study center in the 12th century AD. This university is believed to have educated the ancient Buddhist scholar Atisa Dipankara Srijnana.
Vikramsila Mahavihara
The Vikramaiila Vihara (Buddhist monastery) was a famous seat of learning situated on a hillock on the banks of the Ganga in northern Magadha (Bihar). Vikramshila along with Nalanda formed the era’s powerful duo of knowledge and education.
It is well known that Dharmapala used the title Vikramashiladeva. Thus, the mahavihara was named after him. The Vikramshila Mahavihara was one of the five abodes that the Buddha recommended. The monks lived together in the Vihara, which grew into a big housing complex.
Two 2.9m wide pradaksina-pathas and a brick-built edifice with chambers were discovered. A chaitya was found during excavations. There may have been a monastery based on discovering an inscribed votive stupa. Later excavations uncovered a giant monastery. It had rectangular buildings at the north gate. The rectangular and circular structures were present along the outer wall. It consists of roughly 208 monastic cells. The cells faced a shared verandah. A 1.35m wide door was given for each cell.
A structure in the Vikramshila Mahavihara was dedicated to writing and maintaining manuscripts. It was crucial for preserving talapatra manuscripts. The vents in the south wall were designed to allow the cool breeze to enter. A 3 m-wide perimeter wall enclosed the entire monastic complex. It is known that the Vikramshila Mahavihara contained 58 sanghas. Over 108 Pandits and monks resided in these cells. The institutions’ standing in the academic community has yet to be discovered. The Vikramshila Mahavihara had six gates. A scholar handled each gate called a dvarapala. Jnanapada, Dipankarabhadra, and Bhavabhadra were three top researchers in Tantric Buddhism. Vikramshila Mahavihara was particularly noted for its studies in this area.
Scholars like Dipankara Srijnana, Jetari, Abhayakaragupta, Sakya Sribhadra, etc., led the Vikramshila Mahavihara.
The leader was known as Adhyaksa. The Jetari, who began his career as a dvarapala, rose to the position of adhyaksa. Many Upadhyayas, including Mahaviharasana and Kamalakulisa, handled the Mahavihara’s scriptural affairs.
The Vikramshila Mahavihara also employed translators. One thousand monks are said to have lived permanently, according to Taranatha.
This learning centre was established by Pala king Dharampala in the later 7th century. Dharampala was the son of Gopala, who established Odantapuri University. This proves that the Pala rulers of Bengal and Bihar gave great importance to education.
Unlike other ancient places of learning, Vikramshila opened
its gates to only those who wished to become Buddhist monks. After attaining their education, these monks travelled to far-off lands to spread Buddhism.
According to reports, the Vikramshila campus housed six different colleges, each of which offered a particular expertise. Sanskrit Grammar, Logic, Metaphysics, Philosophy, Ritualism, and Buddhist Tantra (because Vajrayana Buddhism flourished there), were popular subjects.
According to the tales of Tibetan pilgrim monks, the culture of conferring degrees and recognition began at Vikramshila.
The titles of Mahapandit and Pandit were bestowed to people who completed their studies based on merit. The exceptional alums had their images painted on the university’s walls. In accordance with this custom, two portraits of Nagarjuna and Atisa were exhibited on the walls of the university. Vikramshila met the same fate as Nalanda in 1203 AD. In many ways, the fate of both universities was entwined.
In addition to being exceptional universities, both enjoyed great royal patronage in their time, both had astonishing libraries, and both were ransacked and burnt to the ground by the same Turkic invader, Bakhtiyar Khilji.
Jagaddala Mahavihara
It was established in the 11th century AD and was located in what is now north-western Bangladesh. Vajrayana Buddhism was emphasised by the monks there. Vidyakara assembled the Subhasitaratnakosa, the earliest dated anthology of Sanskrit, at Jagaddala Mahavihara. In the 12th century AD, Bakhtiyar Khilji once more destroyed it.
Somapura Mahavihara
In the eighth century AD, the Pala king Dharmapala constructed yet another magnificent Mahavihara. Additionally, it was located in what is now Bangladesh. Its current name is Paharpur. Atisa Srijnana, a Buddhist monk from Bengal, resided in this area for a while.
Five great Mahaviharas networked at that time and coordinated with each other. They were Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantapuri, Jagaddala and Somapura.
Valabhi
The University of Valabhi was located in Saurashtra, Western India. It was a significant center of Buddhist learning and promoted Hinayana Buddhism.
It had for a while been an academic rival to Nalanda. It was an important port for international trade at the time because it was located on the coastline.
The Maitraka Empire was headquartered in Valabhi. Around 6000 monks were there when Xuanzang went to Valabhi. Many Viharas and monasteries were there when Huen-Tsang travelled to Vallabhi. I-Tsang had discovered Vallabhi to be as magnificent as Nalanda. Students from across the nation were flocking here for education.
Although Valabhi promoted Hinayana Buddhism, it was not exclusive or parochial. Brahmanical sciences, in addition to Buddhist beliefs, were taught at this place of learning. Aside from religious studies, there was also training in Niti (Political science and statesmanship), Varta (Business and Agriculture), and Administration. Theology, law, economics, and accounting are all disciplines. In certain circumstances, students who graduated from this university were hired by monarchs to assist in the administration of their kingdom.
Nadia (Navadweep)
Nadia, originally known as Navadweep, was established following the collapse of the Nalanda and Takshashila universities in Bengal, near the confluence of the Ganga and Jalangi rivers. Many courses were taught here, including logic, vyakaran, politics, and law. At the university site, there were three centres: Navadweep, Shantipur, and Gopaalpura. Students have been known to study for as long as 20 years.
Raghunatha Shiromani, an Indian philosopher and logician, founded Nadia University in the 15th century. Since then, debates have been included in the curriculum and are seen as an essential qualification for a university teacher. Students seeking admission and newly hired teachers were obliged to take a test on this quality.
Nadia University produced innumerable scholars from time to time. Worth mentioning is Jaideva who composed Gita Govinda.
Ujjaini
Ujjaini University was home to a number of astronomers and mathematicians:
Varahamihira was a well-known astronomer who authored the Pancha-Siddhantika and Brihat Samhita.
Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer who relocated to Ujjaini and created the Khandakhadyaka, a practical treatise of astronomy. Brahmagupta was the first to treat zero as a number in Brahmasphutasiddhanta, and the book offered arithmetic methods for applying zero.
Bhaskaracharya (also known as Bhaskara II) was appointed director of the Ujjaini astronomical observatory. His most famous works include Siddhanta-Siromani and Lilavati.
Sharada Peeth
Between the sixth and twelfth centuries AD, it was a major temple university. It is situated on the Neelam River’s bank in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. It was crucial in the development of the Sharada script. For the first time, Al- Biruni noted the location. Sharada Peeth is mentioned in Kalhana’s 12th-century epic Rajatarangini as a renowned pilgrimage place. Muthuswami Dikshitar, a 19th-century South Indian composer, refers to Sharada Peeth as Saraswati’s residence.
Manyakheta
It rose to prominence during the Rashtrakuta era and is now known as Malkhe. It is located in Karnataka. Jain, Buddhist, and Hindu scholars studied here. It contains a ‘matha’ from the Dvaita school of philosophy.
Nagarjunakonda
It is located 160 kilometres from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh and was a prominent Buddhist center, with students travelling from Sri Lanka and China for higher studies. There were numerous viharas and stupas. It was named after Nagarjuna, a Mahayana Buddhist scholar from South India.
Kerala School of Mathematics and Astronomy
Madhava established the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics. It thrived between the 14th and 16th centuries AD, producing several notable contributions in power series, trigonometry, and the fundamentals of calculus. This school was affiliated with several notable scholars, including Neelakantha Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Parameshvara, and Achyuta Panikkar. Neelakantha Somayaji wrote Tantrasamgraha, a trigonometry and astronomy treatise.
The Temple Colleges
Several inscriptions in South Indian temples show that temples were not only religious centres, but also catalysts for the spread of education. The inscriptions on the Salotgi pillars (Karnataka) indicate the donation of tax-free lands to the community of scholars and serve as an example of a temple college.
Another Vedic college in Ennayiram, Tamil Nadu, in the 11th century AD, boasted inscriptions detailing the disciplines taught, number of students, and teacher allowances. In the 11th century AD, a similar temple college was built in Tirumukkudal’s Venkatesh Perumal Temple. In the 13th century AD, Tiruvorriyur housed an important grammar college.
In 1268 AD, an inscription in Malkapuram, Guntur, depicts a temple complex including a college, hostel, and hospital. Historians claim that practically every religious center in South India had a Sanskrit school or college, and that a comparable structure existed in North India as well.
Kanthalloor Sala University
Kanthalloor Sala, one of India’s most prestigious universities, is located in Valiyasala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.It dates from the 9th through the 12th centuries. Kanthalloor Sala University, located within the grounds of a temple complex, taught 64 distinct fields, including atheism. Students from all around the country, including Sri Lanka, came to study at this temple university. This university was also known as the “Nalanda of the south.” Students were taught the art of weaponry at the university. The educational center was recognized for adhering to a strong educational and disciplinary code, as well as for prohibiting corporal punishment and brawls on campus. Those who violated the code and the rules were punished.
Somapura University
In the late seventh century, Pala ruler Dharampala also founded Somapura University. This university was almost as large as Nalanda University. The center provided instruction in a variety of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain subjects. The three traditions’ influence may still be seen in the beautiful terracotta carvings on the university’s outer walls. Students from all around the country gathered to study at this learning center.
Somapura University thrived for about 400 years, till the 12th century. Later, a lack of maintenance and an attack by Muslim plunderers caused the demise of this vital learning center.
Pushpagiri University
This university is located in ancient Kalinga, across the districts of Cuttack and Jajpur in modern-day Odisha. It was founded in the late years of the BCE. Pushpagiri University is at least as old as Nalanda University. It is said (but not verified) that Emperor Ashoka himself founded it. The university campus was built on three adjacent hills: Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri. The center taught a variety of courses and drew students from all around the world.
Pushpagiri University is mentioned in the writings of Xuanzang, a Chinese traveller who visited India in the 7th century. Most colleges and Gurukulas were patronised not just by local rulers, but also by kings and the wealthy from distant lands. A 3rd century inscription of Andhra Ikshvaku king Virapurushadatta mentions the king’s donations for the establishment of a stone mandapa at the institution. Prajna, a 9th century Buddhist monk from Gandhara, also studied at this academy.
Due to Muslim invasions, this major learning center declined in patronage.
Sharada Peeth Temple University
This temple university was once one of the most important learning institutions in ancient India. By the name of the temple, Kashmir is also known as Sharada Desh. The Sharada script owes its development and popularity to the Sharada Peeth temple university. This old center of learning is presently under Pakistan’s Azad Kashmir control. This temple university educated many well-known intellectuals from India and adjacent nations. Kalhana, a historian and author of Rajtarangini, a history book on Kashmir in Sanskrit; philosopher Adi Shankara, who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta; Vairotsana, a Tibetan translator; Kumariva, a Buddhist scholar and translator; and Thonmi Sambhota, a Tibetan scholar who invented the Tibetan script, according to traditional Tibetan sources.
The exact year Sharada Peeth Temple University was founded is unknown. According to the records of scholars who studied here, Adi Shankara was a student. Adi Shankara lived around the sixth century BCE, according to Vedveer Arya’s book Chronology of Ancient India. This chronology contradicts the incorrect dates of India’s chronological past. According to this history, literary records of Sharada Peeth TempleUniversity extend back at least 2500 years. However, the learning center must be thousands of years old.
Sharada Peeth is one of the 51 Shakti Peethas; Sati’s right hand fell here, and Bhagwan Vishnu cut her dead body into 51 parts, which fell in 51 different places.
Development of Education During Medieval Times
From the 10th century AD through the middle of the 18th century AD, the Muslim educational system was dominant. Following a series of invasions, Muslim kings built a stable
dominion. The ancient educational system was altered. The educational system’s goal was to increase knowledge and spread Islamic beliefs.
Educational Organisations
The state was very supportive of education, and many maktabs, madrasas, schools, and libraries were created. Maktabs supplied primary education. Madrasas provided higher education and were supported by the monarchs. Persian was commonly employed as a language of education.
Features of the Education System
The rulers were supportive of education.
The spread of religion was regarded as extremely important.
Vocational education received a lot of attention.
Despite the purdah system, education for women was not prohibited.
Women from royal households obtained their education at home.
Among the major medieval educational centres were Delhi, Agra, Jaunpur, and Bidar. Alauddin Khalji founded many madrasas in Delhi. During the Mughal era, Delhi was the most prominent educational center. Humayun established an astronomical research institute. Akbar was really interested in education. He constructed numerous schools in Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar established a transaction department as well as a women’s library. Bidar was a city in South India ruled by Bahmanis. Mahmud Gawan constructed many maktabs in Bidar.
