Introduction
The French Revolution made France a trailblazer in the domain of political culture. It not only established new principles of politics and democracy which continued to influence the European mind subsequently, but also provided a new vocabulary of revolutionary action. The revolutionary doctrines of liberty, equality and fraternity continue to hold a special place even today in democratic societies the world over.
Causes of French Revolution
Social Causes
• In France the existing social system towards the end of the eighteenth century was called the Ancient Regime.
• The Ancient Regime was dominated by the aristocracy; its social and economic foundation was feudal, and autocracy was the general political principle.
• Within the Ancient Regime, the Clergy constituted the First Estate, the Aristocracy comprised the Second Estate, and the rest of the population formed the Third Estate.
• The clergy and the aristocracy constituted the privileged class of society.
The privileged clergy of the First Estate could maintain a separate identity, despite being part of the structures of the state. The law of the King was not applicable to them, and the king had no power to impose tax on them.
• A small group of clergy, holding just 1 percent of the land in the wealthiest tenth, collected tithes that funded their lavish lifestyles. At the same time, corruption was widespread in the Church
The aristocracy of France belonged to the Second Estate. Many owned huge tracts of land and, without paying any taxes, they lived at the expense of the peasants’ labour.
• All the people of France, except those belonging to the First and Second Estates, i.e., clergy and aristocracy, were part of the Third Estate: a total of 96 per cent of the French population.
• The Third Estate was made up of rich businessmen, industrialists, and intellectuals on the one hand, and the laboring men and peasants on the other. It was this section of the French population who bore the brunt of taxation.
• The people of the Third Estate were broadly divided into three groups—the bourgeoisie, the peasants, and the sans-culottes.
• The word bourgeoisie literally means the middle class and though they were a minority in the Third Estate. They wielded the greatest influence and considerable financial power. However, they did not all have the same economic or social status.
• The bourgeoisie included some of the most enlightened, and most intelligent members of French society, yet they were excluded from politics and administration by the privileged estates.
• It was this incongruence which fueled the bourgeois revolution.
Political Causes
• In eighteenth-century Europe, autocratic hereditary monarchies were in power, and France was no exception.
• Louis XIV, a French king of the Bourbon Dynasty, reinforced the autocratic monarchy by centralizing his power.
• Much like the British Parliament, the French Estates General assembled irregularly.
• During the reign of Louis XIV officials known as intendants ran the administration very efficiently but they became selfish and corrupt during the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI.
• In France, the king held control over the judiciary, granting him the authority to impose punishments and imprison individuals without a trial.
• The Parliament, as the highest royal court, had significant influence, though the king couldn’t dismiss its magistrates or judges. However, delays in justice, a complicated legal process, and the high cost of legal proceedings contributed to a corrupt judicial system.
• Despite the monarchy’s inefficiency and decline, the attempt to centralize power ultimately failed, yet many French people remained attached to it, opposing its complete dissolution.
Economic Causes
• The structural and economic crisis of the Ancient Regime deepened with the coronation of Louis XVI in 1774.
• The decline in the French economy started in the first half of the eighteenth century.
• The economic crisis which came in the wake of wars undertaken by Louis XIV, further deepened following the extravagances of Louis XV.
• The main cause of the economic crisis in France was the disparity in taxation.
• The depression of 1778 and the failure of crops in 1787, on the eve of the French Revolution, was an utter disaster for the French economy.
The Role of The Philosophers
The growing resentment, discontent, widespread social and economic disparity, and mutual antagonism and enmity among different social classes created an ambience of social unrest and instability. Under extraordinary circumstances, this disquiet took the shape of a revolution infused with revolutionary spirit. The radical charges in the field of knowledge and political thought in eighteenth-century Europe is called the Enlightenment.
1. Montesquieu (1689-1755)
• Montesquieu was one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and held a deep admiration for England’s political and social system.
• His most notable work, The Spirit of the Laws, outlined his famous theory of the “separation of powers.” He argued that the power of government should be divided among the legislative, judicial, and executive branches to prevent any one part from becoming too powerful and leading to despotism.
Though Montesquieu’s ideas had a revolutionary tone, he did not support republicanism or democracy. Instead, he viewed the constitutional monarchy of England as the ideal model. Despite his criticism of absolute power, he believed that a revolution was not the solution.
2. Voltaire (1694- 1778)
• In the eighteenth century, Voltaire was widely recognized for his brilliance in political thought. Like Montesquieu, he admired the English political system but focused his critiques on other areas. His main target was the Roman Catholic Church, which he associated with religious intolerance. Despite this, Voltaire was not an atheist—he believed in God but rejected organized religion. Politically, Voltaire was a liberal, yet, similar to Montesquieu, he saw the monarchy as a stable institution. He advocated for “enlightened despotism” as his ideal form of government, believing that a wise and just ruler would be the best solution. Voltaire did not support democracy or prioritize the interests of the general public.
3. Rousseau (1712- 78)
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau was undoubtedly the most influential French philosopher of his time, and his ideas were more radical and revolutionary than those of many of his contemporaries. He believed that humans were inherently good and happy in their natural state, but it was society that corrupted them, creating divisions and leading to inequality and unhappiness.
• Rousseau’s vision for an ideal political system was direct democracy, where the power truly resided with the people. He argued that to achieve both social equality and freedom, the people had to be in control of their own governance.
• His ideas had a profound impact on France, shaping much of the thinking that led to the French Revolution. Napoleon himself acknowledged that Rousseau’s influence was a key factor in sparking the revolution, perhaps more so than any other philosopher.
The Impact of the Glorious Revolution and the American War of Independence on the French Revolution
• The Glorious Revolution of 1688 which saw the assertion of people’s power by English Parliamentarians, acted as a great source of inspiration for the French.
• The most immediate inspiration however, came from the American War of Independence.
• The writings of Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson added to the democratic aspirations of the French.
• The French felt emboldened by the success of the Americans in overthrowing British rule, added to which, the American War depleted French finances and virtually brought France to the brink of bankruptcy. This helped hasten the French Revolution.
