Social Organization
The Varna system became more dominant and rigid, and the society came to be known as Varna-ashrama-dharma society.
The non-Aryans came to known as Shudras.
Teaching was seen as the occupation of the Brahmanas.
Some social groups were placed in ranking even below the Sudras.
• Rajanya refers to kshatriyas and they were warriors and rulers who received bali as tax. Vaisya referred to the common people who were cattle breeders, artisans and farmers. Vaisyas paid tax to the kings.
• In Panchavimsa Brahmana, the Kshatriyas were placed first and then Brahmans were placed below them. In Satpatha Brahmana, the Brahmans were placed first and then Kshatriyas were placed. Aitreya Brahmana said that Brahmana was the seeker of support, and he could be removed by the king from his position.
• The concept of Dvija (Twice born) developed and the ritual of upanayana (sacred thread) was limited to the upper three sections of the society namely Brahmana, Kshatriya and Vaishya. Education was largely confined to dvija castes. Dvija discriminated against both Shudras and Chandalas.
• Upanayana ceremony marked the initiation for education.
• Gayatri mantra could not be recited by the Shudras.
• Women were also denied Gayatri mantra and Upanayana.
Family
• Family was patriarchal. This shows that the power of family was in hands of the men. He became the bread earner of the family.
• Patrilineal descent was there. The property of family transfers from man of one generation to the man of next generation.
• Polygyny (taking many wives) was prevalent. This shows that position of women in the society declined as compared to Vedic times.
• Yajamana was married man. This concept developed as religion became more important and Varna system became by birth.
• The concept of asramas (various stages of life) was not well developed.
• Brahmacharya, Grihastha and Vanaprastha were mentioned, Sannyasa had not developed.
• Right of primogeniture (succession of first male heir) was strong.
• Gotra means group of people from common ancestor and thus they could not inter-marry. This idea emerged during Vedic times.
• Marriage with Shudras was prohibited.
• Types of Marriages in Later Vedic Period:
Women
• Status of women declined. Emergence of patriarchal society and patrilineal society was the result of it.
• Women were barred from participating in rituals attending political assemblies.
• Aitreya Brahman mentions daughters as a source of trouble.
CULTURE
Philosophy and Education
• Philosophy, science and literature developed in this period.
• Other subjects taught during this period were – history, grammar, astrology, astronomy, mathematics, ethics, dialectics, military science, fine arts, music and medical science.
• Aranyakas were the first books which were taught by sages in forests.
• Upanishads texts with philosophical enquiries, were composed during this period.
• Upanishads were referred as Vedanta, since they were attached as last part of Vedic texts.
• Education was for a privileged few. Only Brahmans and Kshatriyas were allowed to be educated. Education was limited to males.
• Women despite contributing to composition of the Vedas, were discouraged from vedic education and studying vedic literatures.